Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

The initiatory ritual of Christianity. This rite is of great significance in connecting the individual both to Christ and to the greater community of believers. Baptism carries an equal measure of symbolism and tradition, evoking a connection between OT covenantal circumcision and ritual cleansing and NT regeneration and redemption.

The immediate precursor of Christian baptism was the baptism of John the Baptist (Mark 1:4 pars.), a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins, preparing the hearts of the people for the coming Messiah. But when Jesus himself was baptized by John to “fulfill all righteousness” (Matt. 3:15) and to allow Jesus to identify with sinful humanity, he became the firstfruits of the new covenant. John emphasized that his baptism with water was inferior to the baptism “with the Holy Spirit and fire” that Jesus would bring (Matt. 3:11). Jesus’ disciples continued John’s baptism during his earthly ministry (John 4:12).

Baptism was immediately important in the early church. Jesus commanded the disciples to “make disciples..., baptizing them” (Matt. 28:19). The disciples replaced Judas from among those “who have been with us the whole time ... from John’s baptism” (Acts 1:21–22). Peter’s first sermon proclaims, “Repent and be baptized” (2:38). The apostles baptized new believers in Christ immediately (8:12–13, 38; 9:18; 10:48; 16:15, 33; 18:8; 19:5; 22:16).

For the apostle Paul, baptism represents a participation in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Paul writes, “Don’t you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were therefore buried with him through baptism into death” (Rom. 6:3–4); “In him you were ... buried with him in baptism, in which you were also raised with him through your faith in the working of God, who raised him from the dead” (Col. 2:11–12).

The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.

Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:15). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.

On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).

Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.

Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).

Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.

All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.

During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).

The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).

In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).

Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.

Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).

Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).

Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).

In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).

At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of the redemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughout the entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of grace are rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousness and favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the created realm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.

The biblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines it as a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone. Grace is generosity, thanks, and good will between humans and from God to humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, and effective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robust understanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historical context of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory to himself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. The Creator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give him glory.

At times simply indicating a wish (2Cor. 11:1), in the Bible the word “hope” most often designates a disposition of soul, the grounds for one’s hope, or the outcome for which one hopes. At its core, biblical hope is hope in God, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps. 62:58; Jer. 14:8; 17:13; Rom. 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in the present and lives even now on the strength of God’s future accomplishments (Gal. 5:5; Heb. 11:1).

In the NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work. Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph. 1:12; 1Pet. 1:3; 3:15); indeed, he is “Christ Jesus our hope” (1Tim. 1:1), and his future appearing is “the blessed hope” (Titus 2:13). Thus, hope refers to eschatological glory (2Cor. 3:11–12; Eph. 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection” (Acts 23:6; cf. 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation into Christ’s likeness (1John 3:1–3). That expectation stimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized in one’s own or others’ lives (1Cor. 9:10, 13; Phil. 2:19, 23; 2Tim. 2:25; 2John 12). So hope is named repeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rom. 12:12; 15:4, 13; 1Cor. 13:13).

In the OT, humility often refers to people of low social status, the disenfranchised, and those who suffer oppression and poverty (e.g., Prov. 22:2223; Amos 2:7; Zech. 7:10). Scripture sometimes associates those socially marginalized with the ethical dimension of humility, thus making the social status equivalent to a subjective spiritual quality (Pss. 22:26; 37:11–17; 146:7–9; Zeph. 3:11–13). Social humiliation, however, does not necessarily lead to humility as a virtue. In a number of instances in the OT, the two remain distinct. In its subjective quality, humility involves submission to one in authority, usually to God (Exod. 10:3; Deut. 8:2–3, 16; Ps. 119:67, 71, 75). On some occasions humility is related to the act of repentance before God (e.g., Zeph. 2:1–3). When paired with “fear of the Lord,” humility implies a person who lives in a posture of pious submission before God (Prov. 15:31–33; 22:4).

Such is the case with Moses, whom the writer of Numbers describes in the following way: “Now Moses was a very humble man, more humble than anyone else on the face of the earth” (Num. 12:3). Moses’ humility in this situation is displayed in his intimate relationship with, and by his submissive attitude toward, the sovereign God (12:4–9).

In the NT, Christians take Christ as their model of humility (Matt. 11:29; Phil. 2:6–11). The NT writers also call on Christians to humble themselves before God (James 4:10; 1Pet. 5:5–6) as well as others, including their enemies (Rom. 12:14–21; Phil. 2:3).

In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1Tim. 3:113).

The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).

Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).

The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).

Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.

All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.

It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1Thess. 2:19–20).

In comparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is important to acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modern societies. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposing incarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregating dangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime by imposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so that they can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern law imposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblical law imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment (beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of the biblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modern society would be considered political rather than criminal incarceration.

The story of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph was falsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’s wife (Gen. 39:1920), while his companions were imprisoned for the otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king (40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of a predetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of the king (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himself hundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Joseph imprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for the crime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certain prisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly (Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed for failure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison as a guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen. 42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could also be confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).

In both Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’s salvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7: “The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6; 107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinely sent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison and identified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10; 2Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological terms to a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1Pet. 3:19; Rev. 20:7).

A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).

In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:1011).

Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.

Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).

Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2Kings 22:14–20; 2Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).

Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.

In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.

The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”), is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.

The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).

The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).

According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).

Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:2833; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).

The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.

The Bible has much to say about works, and an understanding of the topic is important because works play a role in most religions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers to the products or activities of human moral agents in the context of religious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned in Scripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen. 2:23; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104; Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Human works, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works, though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usually reflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous, just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moral character of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).

Important questions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality. Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good works save at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus, “What must we do to do the works God requires?” he answered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one he has sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb. 11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NT and often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly good works. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom. 9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even if considered “good” by human standards, are not commendable to God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person is righteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Works cannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9; 2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic law are not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Good works follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess. 1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who have faith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related to rewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf. Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).

The Hebrew expression “sons of God” (often translated as “children of God” in contemporary usage) is an important biblical concept and is used to describe a range of referents.

In the OT, the term is used to refer to angels (e.g., Job 1:6). They are subordinate divine beings, carrying out God’s mission on earth (Job 2:1). Compared to them, Yahweh’s incomparability is asserted in divine council (Ps. 89:6; cf. Deut. 32:8 NIV mg.). They are called upon to praise Yahweh for his creation (Ps. 29:1). They shout for joy at God’s creation (Job 38:7). In Gen. 6:2 the term refers to beings that are apparently of divine origin and to be contrasted with the “daughters of men” in that same passage. The sin mentioned in this passage refers to the cohabitation of divine beings and humans. This union is one of the impetuses for the flood, an indication of how bad things had gotten. The “order” of creation (Gen. 1), where humans are meant to be fruitful with their own kind, is here transgressed. Hence, God introduces further disorder by bringing back the waters of chaos to flood the earth.

Israel as a covenant nation is called “my son, my firstborn” by Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Jer. 31:9; Hos. 11:1). As son, Israel is expected to give proper reverence and honor for his father (Mal. 1:6). Although only one of many metaphors for Israel in the OT, Israel’s status as son is important for understanding the movement of the book of Exodus. Israel is to be delivered from Egyptian rule because Israel is God’s son. If Pharaoh continues to mistreat Israel, God will call judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn, as he did in the plague of death and the Red Sea incident.

Sonship is not exclusive to Israel. The Gentiles are also included in the future of God’s program (Isa. 19:25; Zech. 14:16). Likewise, in the NT all humans are God’s children (Eph. 4:6). More often, though, the term refers to those who are in Christ. The bond is spiritual, and often the concept of adoption is used (John 1:12; Rom. 9:6; Gal. 3:26; 4:5–7; 1 John 5:1). See also Sons of God

Terminology

TheNT word for “church” is ekklēsia, which means“gathering, assembly, congregation.” In classical Greekthe term was used almost exclusively for political gatherings. Inparticular, in Athens the word signified the assembling of thecitizens for the purpose of conducting the affairs of the city.Moreover, ekklēsia referred only to the actual meeting, not tothe citizens themselves. When the people were not assembled, theywere not considered to be the ekklēsia. The NT records threeinstances of this secular usage of the term (Acts 19:32, 39, 41).

Themost important background for the Christian use of the term is theLXX (Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, dated c. 250BC), which uses the word in a religious sense about one hundredtimes, almost always as a translation of the Hebrew word qahal. Whileqahal does not indicate a secular gathering (in contrast to ’edah,the typical Hebrew word for Israel’s religious gathering,translated by Greek synagōgē), it does denote Israel’ssacred meetings. This is especially the case in Deuteronomy, whereqahal is linked with the covenant.

Inthe NT, ekklēsia is used to refer to the community of God’speople 109 times (out of 114 occurrences of the term). Although theword occurs in only two Gospel passages (Matt. 16:18; 18:17), it isof special importance in Acts (23 times) and the Pauline writings (46times). It is found 20 times in Revelation and in isolated instancesin James and Hebrews. Three general conclusions can be drawn fromthis usage. First, ekklēsia (in both the singular and theplural) applies predominantly to a local assembly of those whoprofess faith in and allegiance to Christ. Second, ekklēsiadesignates the universal church (Acts 8:3; 9:31; 1 Cor. 12:28;15:9; especially in the later Pauline letters: Eph. 1:22–23;Col. 1:18). Third, the ekklēsia is God’s congregation(1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 1:1).

TheNature of the Church

Thenature of the church is too broad to be exhausted in the meaning ofone word. To capture its significance, the NT authors utilize a richarray of metaphorical descriptions. Nevertheless, there are thosemetaphors that seem to dominate the biblical pictures of the church,five of which call for comment: the people of God, the kingdom ofGod, the eschatological temple of God, the bride of Christ, and thebody of Christ.

Thepeople of God.Essentially, the concept of the people of God can be summed up in thecovenantal phrase: “I will be their God, and they will be mypeople” (see Exod. 6:6–7; 19:5; Lev. 26:9–14; Jer.7:23; 30:22; 32:37–40; Ezek. 11:19–20; 36:22–28;Acts 15:14; 2 Cor. 6:16; Heb. 8:10–12; Rev. 21:3). Thus,the people of God are those in both the OT and the NT eras whor*sponded to God by faith and whose spiritual origin restsexclusively in God’s grace.

Tospeak of the one people of God transcending the eras of the OT andthe NT necessarily raises the question of the relationship betweenthe church and Israel. Modern interpreters prefer not to polarize thematter into an either/or issue. Rather, they talk about the churchand Israel in terms of there being both continuity and discontinuitybetween them.

Continuitybetween the church and Israel. Two ideas establish the fact that thechurch and Israel are portrayed in the Bible as being in a continuousrelationship. First, in the OT the church was present in Israel insome sense. Acts 7:38 suggests this connection when, alluding toDeut. 9:10, it speaks of the church (ekklēsia) in thewilderness. The same idea is probably to be inferred from theintimate association noted earlier existing between the wordsekklēsia and qahal, especially when the latter is qualified bythe phrase “of God.” Furthermore, if the church is viewedin some NT passages as preexistent, then one finds therein theprototype of the creation of Israel (see Exod. 25:40; Acts 7:44; Gal.4:26; Heb. 12:22; Rev. 21:11; cf. Eph. 1:3–14).

Second,Israel in some sense is present in the church in the NT. The many OTnames for Israel applied to the church in the NT establish that fact.Some of those are “Israel” (Gal. 6:15–16; Eph.2:12; Heb. 8:8–10; Rev. 2:14), “a chosen people”(1 Pet. 2:9), “the circumcision” (Rom. 2:28–29;Phil. 3:3; Col. 2:11), “Abraham’s seed” (Rom. 4:16;Gal. 3:29), “the remnant” (Rom. 9:27; 11:5–7), “theelect” (Rom. 11:28; Eph. 1:4), “the flock” (Acts20:28; Heb. 13:20; 1 Pet. 5:2), and “priesthood”(1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10).

Discontinuitybetween the church and Israel. The church, however, is not totallyidentical with Israel; discontinuity also characterizes therelationship. The church, according to the NT, is the eschatological(end-time) Israel incorporated in Jesus Christ and, as such, is aprogression beyond historical Israel (1 Cor. 10:11; 2 Cor.5:14–21). Indeed, significant discontinuity is introduced bythe fact that the church includes Gentiles as members of Israel,without requiring them to convert to Judaism first. Gentiles enter asGentiles. However, a caveat must be issued at this point. Althoughthe church is a progression beyond Israel, it does not seem to be thepermanent replacement of Israel (see Rom. 9–11, esp. 11:25–27).

Thekingdom of God.Many scholars have maintained that the life, death, and resurrectionof Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God, producing the overlapping ofthe two ages. The kingdom has already dawned but is not yet complete.The first aspect pertains to Jesus’ first coming, and thesecond aspect relates to his second coming. In other words, the ageto come has broken into this age, and now the two existsimultaneously. This background is crucial in ascertaining therelationship between the church and the kingdom of God, because thechurch also exists in the tension that results from the overlappingof the two ages. Accordingly, one may define the church as theforeshadowing of the kingdom. Two ideas flow from this definition:first, the church is related to the kingdom of God; second, thechurch is not equal to the kingdom of God.

Thechurch and the kingdom of God are related. Not until after theresurrection of Jesus does the NT speak with regularity about thechurch. However, there are early signs of the church in the teachingand ministry of Jesus, in both general and specific ways. In general,Jesus anticipated the later official formation of the church in thathe gathered to himself the twelve disciples, who constituted thebeginnings of eschatological Israel—in effect, the remnant.More specifically, Jesus explicitly referred to the church in twopassages: Matt. 16:18–19; 18:17. In the first passage Jesuspromised that he would build his church despite satanic opposition,thus assuring the ultimate success of his mission. The notion of thechurch overcoming the forces of evil coincides with the idea that thekingdom of God will prevail over its enemies and bespeaks theintimate association between the church and the kingdom. The secondpassage relates to the future organization of the church, not unlikethe Jewish synagogue practices of Jesus’ day.

Thechurch and the kingdom of God are not identical. As intimatelyrelated as the church and the kingdom of God are, the NT does notequate the two, as is evident in the fact that the early Christianspreached the kingdom, not the church (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 20:25; 28:23,31). The NT identifies the church as the people of the kingdom (e.g.,Rev. 5:10), not the kingdom itself. Moreover, the church is theinstrument of the kingdom. This is especially clear from Matt.16:18–19, where the preaching of Peter and the church becomethe keys to opening up the kingdom of God to all who would enter.

Theeschatological temple of God.Both the OT and Judaism anticipated the rebuilding of the temple inthe future kingdom of God (e.g., Ezek. 40–48; Hag. 2:1–9;1 En. 90:29; 91:3; Jub. 1:17, 29). Jesus hinted that he wasgoing to build such a structure (Matt. 16:18; Mark 14:58; John2:19–22). Pentecost witnessed to the beginning of thefulfillment of that dream in that when the Spirit inhabited thechurch, the eschatological temple was formed (Acts 2:16–36).Other NT writers also perceived that the presence of the Spirit inthe Christian community constituted the new temple of God (1 Cor.3:16–17; 2 Cor. 6:14–7:1; Eph. 2:19–22; seealso Gal. 4:21–31; 1 Pet. 2:4–10). How­ever,that the eschatological temple is not yet complete is evident in thepreceding passages, especially in their emphasis on the need for thechurch to grow toward maturity in Christ, which will be fullyaccomplished only at the parousia (second coming of Christ). In themeantime, Christians, as priests of God, are to perform theirsacrificial service to the glory of God (Rom. 12:1–2; Heb.13:15; 1 Pet. 2:4–10).

Thebride of Christ.The image of marriage is applied to God and Israel in the OT (seeIsa. 54:5–6; 62:5; Hos. 2:7). Similar imagery is applied toChrist and the church in the NT. Christ, the bridegroom, hassacrificially and lovingly chosen the church to be his bride (Eph.5:25–27). Her responsibility during the betrothal period is tobe faithful to him (2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:24). At the parousia theofficial wedding ceremony will take place, and with it the eternalunion of Christ and his wife will be actualized (Rev. 19:7–9;21:1–2).

Thebody of Christ.The body of Christ as a metaphor for the church is unique to thePauline literature and constitutes one of the most significantconcepts therein (Rom. 12:4–5; 1 Cor. 12:12–27; Eph.4:7–16; Col. 1:18). The primary purpose of the metaphor is todemonstrate the interrelatedness of diversity and unity within thechurch, especially with reference to spiritual gifts. The body ofChrist is the last Adam (1 Cor. 15:45), the new humanity of theend time that has appeared in history. However, Paul’s usage ofthe image, like the metaphor of the new temple, indicates that thechurch, as the body of Christ, still has a long way to gospiritually. It is not yet complete.

Sacraments

Atthe heart of the expression of the church’s faith are thesacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper. The formersymbolizes entrance into the church, while the latter providesspiritual sustenance for the church.

Baptism.Baptism symbolizes the sinner’s entrance into the church. Threeobservations emerge from the biblical treatment of this sacrament.First, the OT intimated baptism, especially in its association ofrepentance of sin with ablutions (Num.19:18–22; Ps. 51:7; Ezek.36:25; cf. John 3:5). Second, the baptism of John anticipatedChristian baptism. John administered a baptism of repentance inexpectation of the baptism of the Spirit and fire that the Messiahwould exercise (Matt. 3:11 // Luke 3:16). Those who accept Jesusas Messiah experience the baptism of fire and judgment (which may bean allusion to undergoing the great tribulation/messianic woes thatlead into the messianic kingdom). Third, the early church practicedbaptism in imitation of the Lord Jesus (Matt. 3:13–17 //Mark 1:9–11 // Luke 3:21–22; see also John 1:32–34;cf. Matt. 28:19; Acts 2:38; 8:16; Rom. 6:3–6; 1 Cor.1:13–15; Gal. 3:27; Titus 3:5; 1 Pet. 3:21). Thesepassages demonstrate some further truths about baptism: baptism isintimately related to faith in God; baptism identifies the personwith the death and resurrection of Jesus; baptism incorporates theperson into the community of believers.

Lord’sSupper.The other biblical sacrament is the Lord’s Supper. This ritesymbolizes Christ’s spiritual nourishment of his church as itcelebrates the sacred meal. Two basic points emerge from the biblicaldata concerning the Lord’s Supper. First, it was instituted byChrist (Matt. 26:26–29; Mark 14:22–25; Luke 22:15–20;1 Cor. 11:23–25), probably as an adaptation of thePassover meal. If that is the case, then, Jesus will have introducedtwo changes into the Passover seder: he replaced the unleavened breadwith a reference to his body being given for us on the cross; hereplaced the cup of redemption with a reference to his shed blood onthe cross, the basis of the new covenant. Second, the early churchpracticed the Lord’s Supper probably weekly, in conjunctionwith the love feast (see 1 Cor. 11:18–22; cf. Jude 12). Atwofold meaning is attached to the Lord’s Supper by the NTauthors. First, it involves participation in Christ’s salvation(Luke 22:19; 1 Cor. 11:24–25), and in two ways:participating in the Lord’s Supper looks back to the death ofJesus, in which the believer now shares; participating in the Lord’sSupper looks forward to Christ’s return, the culmination pointof the believer’s salvation. Second, the Lord’s Supperinvolves identification with the body of Christ, the community offaith (1 Cor. 10:16–17; 11:27–33).

Worship

Theultimate purpose of the church is to worship God through Christ andin the power of the Holy Spirit (see, e.g., Rev. 4–5). Theearly church first worshiped in the Jerusalem temple (Acts 2:46; 3:1;5:42) as well as in the synagogue (Acts 22:19; cf. John 9:22; James2:2). At the same time, and into the near future, believers met inhomes for worship (Acts 1:13; 2:46; 5:42; cf. Rom. 16:15; Col. 4:15;Philem. 2; 2 John 10; 3 John 1, 6). Although many JewishChristians no doubt continued to worship God on the Sabbath, theestablished time for the church’s worship came to be Sunday,the day of Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 20:7; Rev. 1:10). Theearly church most probably patterned its order of worship after thesynagogue service: praise in prayer (Acts 2:42, 47; 3:1; 1 Thess.1:2; 5:17) and in song (1 Cor. 14:26; Phil. 2:6–11; Col.1:15–20), the expounding of Scripture (Acts 2:42; 6:4; Col.4:16; 1 Thess. 2:13; 1 Tim. 4:13), and almsgiving to theneedy (Acts 2:44–45; 1 Cor. 16:1–2; 2 Cor. 8–9;James 2:15–17).

Serviceand Organization

Fiveobservations emerge from the NT regarding the service andorganization of the early church. First, the ministry of the churchcenters on its usage of spiritual gifts, which are given to believersby God’s grace and for his glory as well as for the good ofothers (Rom. 12:3; Eph. 4:7–16). Second, every believerpossesses a gift of the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:7; Eph. 4:7). Third,it is through the diversity of the gifts that the body of Christmatures and is unified (Rom. 12:4; 1 Cor. 12:12–31; Eph.4:17–18). Fourth, although there was organized leadership inthe NT church, including elders (1 Tim. 3:1–7 [also called“pastors” and “bishops”; see Acts 20:17, 28;1 Pet. 5:1–4]) and deacons (1 Tim. 3:8–13),there does not seem to have been a gap between the “clergy”and the “laity” in the church of the first century;rather, those with the gift of leadership are called to equip all thesaints for the work of the ministry (Eph. 4:7–16). Fifth,spiritual gifts are to be exercised in love (1 Cor. 13).

In Christian theology, doctrine is the synthesis of Christianteaching, especially as set forth in its various related themes. Theearly disciples frequently referred to the teachings of Christ and tothe teachings of the apostles and the church. These were memorized,compiled, and passed through the generations in the church (2Tim.2). As early as Acts 2 reference is made to the teaching of theapostles and the devotion of the church to it. By the second century,a body of teaching had crystallized into a doctrinal treatise calledthe Didache. Doctrinal teaching as a set structure is especiallyemphasized in the Pastoral Epistles, such that it has caused some toconjecture a later date and early catholic outlook for those letters.Regardless of the validity of this postulation, these lettersevidence an early doctrinal and confessional outlook within thechurch.

Thiswas, of course, nothing new, since the Israelites had a body ofteaching that they had passed on through the generations: the law,both written and oral. For the Israelites, the law, both written andoral, was memorized, taught, interpreted, and heeded through all ofsociety. The church simply followed suit in forming its teachings.

Inthe NT two words, didachē and didaskalia, are commonlytranslated “teaching” and in some cases are rendered bysome translations as “doctrine.” The term didachēappears more widely throughout the NT, whereas didaskalia is usedlargely in the Pastoral Epistles (referring to both the content andthe act of teaching). The term didaskalia is sometimes used with theterm logos when the latter indicates sound speech (Titus 2:7–8)and words of the faith (1Tim. 4:6). In fact, in one verse inthe Pastoral Epistles all three terms are used together as “thefaithful word,” “in accordance with the teaching,”and “in sound doctrine” (Titus 1:9 NASB).

Thefirst body of teaching for the church is the teaching of Jesus (Matt.7:28), such as that found in the Sermon on the Mount, where Jesusnotes the ethic of his messiahship and his followers. The teaching ofJesus, which is authoritative (Mark 1:22, 27), and confrontational(Mark 12:38), is an astonishing answer to the religious leaders(Matt. 22:33; cf. Luke 4:32). Jesus notes the vanity of teaching thehuman commandments as if they were the doctrine from God (Mark 7:7).When questioned, Jesus sets forth his teaching as from the Father(John 7:16–17). The chief priests seek to destroy both Jesusand his followers because of the teaching (Mark 11:18; John 18:19;Acts 5:28). On Cyprus the proconsul is astonished at the doctrine ofChrist taught by Paul (Acts 13:12), and in Athens Paul’steaching about Christ is new and unusual to those of the Areopagus(Acts 17:18–20).

ForPaul, doctrine is fundamental for believers. He notes the commitmentto the teaching of Christ after conversion as normative for the Romanbelievers (Rom. 6:17), and he instructs further that they keep an eyeout for those who cause division and hinder adherence to sounddoctrine (Rom. 16:17). In fact, God has given gifted people to thebody for building up the saints to avoid such doctrinal problems(Eph. 4:12–14). Further, a straightforward expression ofteaching has priority over gifts such as tongues (1Cor. 14:6,26). Paul also points out that the Colossian heresy is the doctrineof human beings rather than that of God (Col. 2:22).

Inthe Pastoral Epistles the injunction from Paul to Timothy is that hebe nourished on and persevere in sound doctrine (1Tim. 4:6, 16)and set forth doctrine in preaching (1Tim. 4:13 [along withpublic reading of Scripture]; 2Tim. 4:2). All this is certainlyfitting for Timothy, as he has followed the teaching of Paul (2Tim.3:10). The injunction to Titus is to hold to the word and to thesound doctrine and teaching as he corrects the church (Titus 1:9).Those who are servants are encouraged to show honesty and good faith,so that the teaching of the Savior will be respected (Titus 2:10). Itis clear for Paul that Scripture is the basis of doctrine (2Tim.3:16). This doctrine (teaching) will be tolerated by few; as a whole,sound doctrine will be rejected in favor of a message more palatableto human interest (2Tim. 4:3). The task of the servant of Godis to stand against heterodox teaching (1Tim. 1:3; 6:3).Heterodoxy leads to heteropraxy (1Tim. 1:10). Paul notes thedoctrine of demons, false teaching that is ultimately based insatanic teaching (1Tim. 4:1).

Theinjunction of the writer to the Hebrews is that they are not tosubmit to strange teachings, which deny grace (13:9). This accordswith the book’s argument as a whole. For John, staying in thedoctrine of Christ is salvific, but going outside it is not (2John9). John’s readers are not to receive those who pervert thedoctrine of Christ (2John 10).

Inthe book of Revelation, Jesus warns the church at Pergamum about thefalse teaching of Balaam (2:14) and that of the Nicolaitans (2:15).The church at Thyatira is likewise warned to shun the teachings ofthe false prophetess known as “Jezebel” (2:20,24).

The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).

Heavenand Earth

Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.

Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.

TheTheology of Land

Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).

Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).

Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.

Inheritance

Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).

Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.

Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).

Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).

Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).

Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).

Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

The word “forbearance” is used in some English versions to translate various Hebrew and Greek words meaning “patience,” “endurance,” or “long-suffering.”

In the NT, the noun anochē is used with “kindness” and “patience” to note God’s patience with humankind in his offer of repentance (Rom. 2:4). He shows patience in the cross (3:25–26). Thus, forbearance is an attribute of God.

Jesus uses the verb anechō when he asks how long he will have to “put up with” the generation of his first coming (Matt. 17:17). Paul asks the Corinthians to bear with him as he defends his apostleship (2Cor. 11:1), since they have well put up with false teachers (2Cor. 11:19–20). He commands the disciples in the churches to be tolerant with one another (Eph. 4:2). Paul notes that he forbears or endures persecution (1Cor. 4:12), and he commends the Thessalonians’ patience in the face of persecution suffered for the sake of the gospel (2Thess. 1:4).

The English word “gospel” translates the Greekword euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being usedseventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu= “good,”angelion= “announcement”), in its contemporary usein the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather adeclaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empirewith reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, whowas thought of as a savior with divine status. These events includeddeclarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and hisaccession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be tracedto the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to thecoming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This goodnews, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’spromises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.

TheGospel Message

Theapostle Paul recognizes that the gospel is centered on the death,burial, and resurrection of Jesus (1Cor. 15:1–5). Hestates that this gospel is the power of God for the salvation ofeveryone who believes (Rom. 1:16), a sacred trust (1Tim. 1:11),the word of truth (Eph. 1:13), and an authoritative pronouncementthat requires a response (Rom. 10:16; 2Cor. 11:4; 2Thess.1:8). The declaration of this good news is found on the lips of Jesusin the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18), who calls people torespond in repentance and belief (Mark 1:15). The good news is alsoin the early apostolic preaching, where it is associated with theproclamation of Christ (Acts 5:42; 8:35; 11:20).

Therecords of apostolic preaching in Acts are records of the earliestpublic declaration of this gospel. The apostle Peter gives three suchspeeches (Acts 2:14–41; 3:11–4:4; 10:34–43), whosecontent can be summarized as follows. The age of fulfillment hasdawned through the birth, life, ministry, and resurrection of JesusChrist (2:22–31), which has ushered in the “latter days”foretold by the prophets (3:18–26). Jesus, by his resurrection,has been exalted to the right hand of God as the head of the newIsrael (2:32–36), and the Holy Spirit has been given to thechurch as the sign of Christ’s present power and exaltation(10:44–48). This age will reach its consummation at the returnof Christ (3:20–21), and in response to this gospel an appealis made for repentance, with the offer of forgiveness, the HolySpirit, and salvation (2:37–41).

Thisdeclaration of the gospel is concerned primarily with what waspreached rather than what was written. Itinerant preachers of thisgospel were known as “evangelists,” which in Greek isclosely related to the term euangelion (Acts 21:8; Eph. 4:11; 2Tim.4:5). Some scholars believe that during the stage of oraltransmission, the gospel accounts developed a certain form throughrepetition, which helps explain some similarities between laterwritten accounts of the gospel.

FromOral to Written Gospel

Later,this “oral” gospel was written down, for several reasons.With the rapid spread of Christianity, as recorded in the book ofActs, a need arose for a more efficient dissemination of the messageof Jesus than was available by oral means. Furthermore, there was aneed to keep the message alive because some of the apostles had died(e.g., James in Acts 12:2) and many churches were facing oppositionand persecution. The written Gospels would facilitate catecheticaland liturgical needs and encourage persecuted Christians to continuefollowing Jesus by telling the story of his faithfulness throughgreat suffering. These written Gospels would also contain examples ofthose who persevered in following Jesus and of those who denied himand betrayed him. These accounts about Jesus and those who followedhim became foundational documents for the early church.

Itshould be noted that the gospel was not written down in order to giveit greater authority. The first-century context was largely an oralculture, in which storytelling and the rehearsal of facts wasintegral. Papias, a leader of the church in Hierapolis in Asia Minorwho died around AD 130, states his preference for oral traditionrather than written information about Jesus: “For I did notthink that information from books would help me as much as the wordof a living and surviving voice” (Eusebius, Hist. eccl.3.39.4). There is, however, a traceable trajectory from the gospelpreached by the apostles to the written accounts that bear the namesof Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. It is generally held that theauthors/editors of the four canonical Gospels were using oral and/orwritten sources (Luke 1:1–4), and that their respective Gospelswere written in the second half of the first century.

Themajority of biblical scholars hold that Mark was the first Gospel tobe written (c. AD 66). According to tradition, its editor/author wasJohn Mark, a close friend of the apostle Peter (1Pet. 5:13) anda part-time companion of the apostle Paul (Acts 12:12; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 4:11). This tradition is not without basis. Papias says,“Mark, who had indeed been Peter’s interpreter,accurately wrote as much as he remembered, yet not in order, aboutthat which was either said or done by the Lord” (Eusebius,Hist. eccl. 3.39.15). This tradition is also outlined by Clement ofAlexandria, who, around AD 200, wrote, “When Peter had publiclypreached the word at Rome, and by the Spirit had proclaimed thegospel, then those present, who were many, exhorted Mark, as one whohad followed him for a long time and remembered what had been spoken,to make a record of what he said; and that he did this, anddistributed the Gospel among those that asked him” (Eusebius,Hist. eccl. 6.14.5–7; cf. 2.15.1–2).

Itis widely held that Matthew and Luke used Mark as one of theirsources: of the material in Mark, over 97percent is repeated inMatthew and over 88percent in Luke. Matthew and Luke alsocontain material that appears to come from a common written sourcethat is not found in Mark. Scholars have named this source as “Q”(from the German Quelle= “source”), although thismay be a collection of sources rather than a single document.

Furthermore,the association of the Fourth Gospel with the apostle John goes backto Irenaeus (c. AD 180), who states, “John, the disciple of theLord, who leaned on his breast, also published the gospel whileliving at Ephesus in Asia” (Haer. 3.1.1, as cited in Eusebius,Hist. eccl. 5.8.4). By the second century, the term “gospel”is used for the written accounts of the life, death, and resurrectionof Jesus (e.g., Did. 11.3; 15.4). Justin Martyr (c. AD 140) refers tothe “memoirs of the apostles” (1Apol. 67) andIrenaeus (c. AD 180) mentions the four canonical Gospels by name(Haer. 3.11.7).

ThePurpose and Genre of the Gospels

Purpose.The Gospels were written to convey theology and to create and confirmfaith. They do not give an objectively neutral account of the life ofJesus; they enthusiastically endorse their protagonist and condemnthose who oppose him. They differ from traditional biographies inthat they give little information about the chronology of Jesus’life. Only two of the Gospels, Matthew and Luke, tell of the eventssurrounding Jesus’ birth. Luke alone tells of an event inJesus’ childhood (Luke 2:41–52). It is virtuallyincidental that Jesus worked as a carpenter and had brothers andsisters (Mark 6:3). A large percentage of each of the four canonicalGospels is devoted to the last week of Jesus’ life; of thesixteen chapters of Mark’s Gospel, six are devoted to the oneweek from Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem until his resurrection.

Theprimary intentions of the authors/editors of the written Gospels werenot to give biographical details but rather to lead the reader to anacknowledgment of the identity of Jesus and a belief in the purposeof his mission (Luke 1:4; John 20:31). Their theological purposes,however, do not necessarily compromise their commitment to historicalaccuracy. Jesus is presented as a real, historical figure who livedwithin a specific historical time frame. Luke appears to be moreconcerned than the other evangelists with historical details, givinga rough date for Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1–2) and a morespecific time for Jesus’ baptism (3:1–2).

Genre.The discerning reader of the Gospels is forced to ask questionsconcerning the literary genre(s) of these texts. Such a discussion isimperative, as the interpretation of a section of any piece ofliterature will largely be determined by the function of the textwithin a certain literary genre. Prior to the 1970s, most NT scholarsbelieved that the Gospels formed a unique literary genre and weretherefore distinct from other first-century literary forms. Thisconclusion was based on the belief that the written Gospels werecollections of smaller sections sewn together by the evangelists, andthat the documents as a whole lacked coherence. Since then, thispresupposition has been challenged, largely because scholars haveseen that the Gospel writers were real editors and authors who werenot just collecting primitive source material but were using thatmaterial to write a larger story about Jesus. The written Gospelstherefore have overall coherence and purpose; they were written insuch a way as to bring about a desired response in the reader. Suchan overall intention may have stronger similarities with differentgenres in the Greco-Roman world of theNT.

TheGospels have been associated with several genres. They bear someresemblance to aretalogies, which were narratives about divinepersons in antiquity from which flowed moral instructions. Thesestories often involved miraculous events at the subject’s birthor death or during life, and they included the presence of bothdisciples and opponents. Within these aretalogies, the narrative wassecondary to the morality. An association with aretalogies,therefore, would encourage the reader to give greater attention tomoral teaching than to events in which this teaching is embedded.Similarly, others have seen the Gospels as essentially a collectionof wisdom sayings set in a historicized narrative; this view againgives priority to sayings and is doubtful of the historicity of thenarrative. Such views that downplay the narrative, and particularlythe miracles in Jesus’ life, have led others to argue theopposite extreme, which sees the Gospels, and Luke-Acts inparticular, as examples of ancient novels, with their focus onmiracle stories. Many scholars have rejected the emphasis on eithersayings or narrative, arguing that the literary genre that theGospels most closely resemble is ancient biographies (bioi). Thesecontained praise for the protagonist, rhetoric, moral philosophy, anda concern for character.

Althoughthe Gospels use different literary motifs that are reflective ofdifferent genres of the Greco-Roman world, they do not exactlyreplicate a known genre. They contain material not found in otherHellenistic literature of the time—for example, the fulfillmentof OT expectations and their desire to address particular issuesfaced by the early church, such as opposition; the Gentile mission;the need to redefine Israel in the light of Jesus’ life, death,and resurrection; and the nature of Christian discipleship. Unlikeother literature of the time, they do not name their authors, andwith the exception of Luke, they lack traditional literary devicessuch as prefaces. They are therefore to be seen as unique, or atleast as a distinct subgenre of ancient biographies.

Canonicaland Noncanonical Gospels

Theprogression from the events of Jesus’ life to the oralpreaching of this gospel to the first-century writing of the storyled to the acceptance of the Gospels according to Matthew, Mark,Luke, and John into the NT canon. There is also a significant body ofliterature that is normally referred to as the noncanonical gospels.These later documents were neither widely accepted nor viewed asauthoritative, but they provide useful insights into the nature ofearly Christianity. A significant noncanonical gospel is the Gospelof Thomas, which is part of a large collection of works discovered atNag Hammadi (Egypt) in 1945. The Gospel of Thomas does not contain aresurrection account and is primarily a collection of sayings.

Thecanonical Gospels are not more authoritative than other sections ofScripture, but because they focus on Jesus’ ministry, withparticular attention to his death and resurrection, they draw theattention of the reader to the fulfillment of God’s purpose inthe life and work of Jesus, the Messiah. They are therefore of greatimportance within Scripture.

Grace is the nucleus, the critical core element, of theredemptive and sanctifying work of the triune God detailed throughoutthe entire canon of Scripture. The variegated expressions of graceare rooted in the person and work of God, so that his graciousnessand favor effectively demonstrated in every aspect of the createdrealm glorify him as they are shared and enjoyed with one another.

Thebiblical terminology informing an understanding of grace defines itas a gift or a favorable reaction or disposition toward someone.Grace is generosity, thanks, and goodwill between humans and from Godto humans. Divine expressions of grace are loving, merciful, andeffective. The biblical texts provide a context for a more robustunderstanding of divine gift. The overall redemptive-historicalcontext of grace is the desire of the eternal God to bring glory tohimself through a grace-based relationship with his creation. TheCreator-Redeemer gives grace, and the recipients of grace give himglory.

OldTestament

Genesis.The grace of the creation narratives is summarized with the repeateduse of the term “good” (Gen. 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25,31). God is good, and he made a good creation with abundant gifts forAdam and Eve to enjoy. When Adam and Eve rebelled against God, herighteously judged and graciously provided for an ongoingrelationship. God clothed the naked Adam and Eve (3:21) and announcedthat the seed of the woman would yield a redeemer (3:15).

Gracein the postcreation narratives (Gen. 4–6) is focused onindividuals. God looked with favor on Abel and his offering (4:4),and Noah found grace in God’s eyes (6:8). God looked at and hadregard for the offering of Abel (Gen. 4). Jacob confessed to Esauthat God graced him with descendants and with possessions (33:5).

Graceand graciousness also characterize interaction between individuals.The Jacob and Esau exchange uses grace vocabulary for the gift andthe disposition of grace. Jacob invited Esau to accept his gift if hehad a favorable disposition toward him (Gen. 33:11). The covenant sonJoseph received favorable treatment from the prison warden because ofhis disposition toward him (39:21).

Exodus.The exodus narrative recounts how the seed of Abraham multiplies, isredeemed, and then is given the law, which defines the relationshipof God to Israel. All these events are tied to the gracious promisesthat God made to Abraham and his descendants (Gen. 12; 15; 17; seealso Gen. 21; 27).

Thegrace associated with the redemption of Israel from Egypt iscelebrated in the song of Exod. 15. God’s victory over theEgyptian army and his covenant fidelity to the patriarchs are thesong’s themes. Moses and the Israelites sing because God heardIsrael’s groaning; he remembered his covenant with Abraham andlooked on Israel with concern (2:24). God made Egypt favorablydisposed toward Israel (3:21) and parted the sea for Israel to escape(11:3; 12:36). The confession “He is my God ... myfather’s God” ties together major sections of redemptivehistory and affirms the constancy of God’s grace throughout theperiods (15:2). God’s tenacious covenant loyalty (khesed) tothe nation and his covenant grace (15:13) to Israel cannot bemerited.

Thegiving of the law in Exod. 20 is prefaced by a gracious and powerfulpresentation of God to the nation in Exod. 19. In the organizationand development of Exod. 19–20, grace themes emerge. The graceassociated with redemption and covenant life is marked in Exod. 19.God took Israel from Egyptian bondage, redeemed it, and brought thenation to himself (19:4). Through this action, the nation will becomea special treasure, a holy nation, a kingdom of priests (19:5–6).In sum, Israel exists because God created, loved, and redeemed it.

Second,the Decalogue of Exod. 20 follows upon the redemption effected byGod, defining how Israel will relate to its God. In this sense, lawis viewed as a gift that expresses the divine will. When compared andcontrasted with ancient Near Eastern laws, Torah reflects the graceof God’s character and his genuine concern for the poor,slaves, aliens, and widows. In addition, there is a grace ethic thatmotivates obedience to the law. The motivational statements in theDecalogue in Exod. 20 relate to the grace of redemption (v.2),the righteousness of God (vv. 4–7), the creation work of God(vv. 8–11), and long life (v.12).

Exodus32–34 is a key passage that links the covenant with graceterminology. This section begins with the story of the golden calf(chap. 32) and ends with the account of Moses’ radiant face(34:29–35). The grace terminology is observed in 33:19; 34:6–7.The context of 33:19 involves Moses meeting with God face-to-face.According to 33:12–17, Moses wanted to know who would be leftafter the purge of 33:5. He acknowledged God’s favor in hislife and wondered who else might enjoy it. Moses reminded God thatthe nation was his people (33:13). The grace of this account is God’sassurance of his presence with Israel and the unmerited purposefulexpression of his grace.

Exodus34:6–7 employs a series of adjectives in a grace confessionalstatement. This statement arises out of God’s instructions toMoses to cut two new tablets of stone like the first ones (34:1; seealso 24:12), which were broken after the incident of the golden calf(32:19). God descended in a cloud, stood with Moses, and proclaimedhis name to him (34:5). The rhetoric of the passage emphasizes thespeech of God, who defines himself in connection with covenantmaking. God is merciful and gracious, long-suffering, anddistinguished by steadfast love.

Graceand covenant loyalty.These key passages are foundational for understanding the grace andsteadfast loyalty of God expressed in the subsequent events ofcovenant history. Grace and khesed are expressed in connection withcovenant curse implementation (Num. 14:18; Hos. 4:1; 6:4, 6), in theoverall structure of Deuteronomy (5:10; 7:9, 12), in the Davidiccovenant (2Sam. 7:15; 1Chron. 17:13), in the future hopeof Israel (Isa. 54:8), in restoration (Jer. 32:18), in the newcovenant (Jer. 31:31), and in exile (Dan. 9:4).

Toround out the OT discussion, we may note that covenant siblings wereto be gracious and loyal in their ongoing relationships with oneanother. The book of Ruth illustrates covenant grace in action (2:2,10, 13). In addition, grace is to be expressed toward the poor (Prov.28:8), the young and the old (Deut. 28:50), and those who suffer (Job19:21).

NewTestament

TheNT focus of grace is developed in keeping with the foundation laid inthe OT. The triune God is the center and source of grace: it is thegrace of God (Rom. 1:7), the Spirit of grace (Heb. 10:29), and thegrace of Christ (John 1:17). The grace of God revealed in the OT isunveiled uniquely in the person and work of Christ.

TheGospel of John.The canonical development of the grace theme between the Testamentsis explained in the opening chapter of John’s Gospel. JesusChrist is the Word, who was with God, who is God, and who created theworld (John 1:1–3). Christ then became flesh and dwelled amongus (1:14). In doing so, he made known the glory of God to us. At thispoint in the development of chapter 1, John connects Christ (theWord) with the adjectives describing God in Exod. 34:6 to affirm thatChrist has the very same virtues that God has. The assertion in John1:17 that Jesus is full of grace and truth parallels the statement inExod. 34:6 of God’s steadfast love and faithfulness. In Christwe are able to see the glory that Moses hoped to see in God (John1:18). Christ is both the message and the messenger of grace andtruth.

TheEpistles and Acts.The NT Epistles develop the “full of grace and truth”statement about Christ (John 1:14) in several ways. The grace andtruth found in Christ are given to his servants (1Cor. 1:4) andare a reason for praise (2Cor. 8:9; Gal. 1:6, 15; Eph. 4:7;1Tim. 1:2; 2Tim. 2:1). This grace from Christ iseffective in bringing about redemption and sustaining a life ofgodliness. Ephesians 2:8–9 is the classic statement affirmingthat God’s favor is the source of salvation. Paul makes thispoint by repeating “it is by grace” in 2:5, 8 andclarifying the grace of salvation with the “it is the gift ofGod” statement in 2:8. This design of salvation celebrates theincomparable riches of Christ’s grace and the expression of hiskindness to us (cf. Eph. 1:7). Salvation is devoid of human merit,gifts, or favor (2:8). Keeping the law as a means of entrance into arelationship with God and as a means of gaining favor with God isantithetical to the nature of grace. God’s favor expressed topeople in salvation is an expression of his sovereign will.

Romans5 declares many of the same themes found in Eph. 2. In Rom. 5 Paulcontrasts the action and result of Adam’s transgression withthe obedience of Christ. Salvation is God’s grace and giftbrought by the grace of one man, Jesus Christ (v.15). The giftand grace of Christ brought about justification.

Theeffective operation of God’s grace in salvation is illustratedin the historical narratives of Acts. The men involved in the heateddebate of the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:2) affirmed the salvation ofthe Gentiles by grace after hearing the report of Barnabas and Paul(15:12). Those in Achaia (18:27) are another illustration of aneffective operation of grace.

Thegrace of God that saves is also the grace that sanctifies. Titus 2:11declares that redemptive grace instructs the redeemed to say no to alife of ungodliness. The instructional nature of grace is highlightedin the development of the Titus 2 context. The teacher in 2:1–10,15 is Titus, who is to nurture godly people. There is a change ofinstructors in 2:11, with grace now teaching. Redemptive grace worksin harmony with sanctifying grace to provide for godly living.

Accordingto Titus 3:8, those who trust in the generosity of God’s graceshould devote themselves to doing what is good. By God’s grace,justified sinners will find their delight and satisfaction in thepromises of God for a life of persevering godliness.

Gracealso functions as an enablement for life and ministry. Paul oftenrehearses this feature of grace in his letters. In Rom. 1:5 Paultestifies about the grace associated with a commission to be anapostle. When reflecting on his role in the church, he affirms thatby God’s grace he has been able to lay a foundation (1Cor.3:10). Paul’s testimony in 1Cor. 15:10 demonstrates theessential role of grace in making him who he is and effectivelyenabling what he does. Giving is also viewed as an exercise of grace(2Cor. 8:7) reflecting the grace received by individualbelievers. This gift of grace for life and ministry is somehowrecognizable. Peter, James, and John recognized it in Paul (Gal.2:9). It was upon the apostles (Acts 4:33), and it was seen in thechurch of Antioch (11:23).

Giventhe source and the effective nature of grace, one can understand theappropriateness of appealing to grace in greetings and salutations(Rom. 1:7; 16:20; Gal. 1:3; 6:18).

Commongrace.Finally, grace does operate beyond the context of the elect and thework of salvation and sanctification. Theologians define this as“common grace.” God’s sending rain and givingcreatures intellectual and artistic abilities are expressions ofcommon grace.

In both Testaments “head” can refer to theliteral head of the physical body or be symbolic of leadership andthe source of provision.

Thephysical head played a significant role in Jewish and Christiancustoms. Cutting off an opponent’s head was a symbol of victory(1Sam. 17:46; 1Chron. 10:9–10). The consecration ofpriests and kings was done by anointing the head with oil (Exod.29:7; Lev. 8:12; 1Sam. 10:1). Contrition and shame weredisplayed by covering one’s head (2Sam. 15:30; Jer.14:3). Grief was expressed by casting dust or ashes on the head (Job1:20; 2Sam. 13:19; 15:32; Lam. 2:10; Ezek. 27:30; Rev. 18:19)or shaving one’s own head (Job 1:20; Jer. 16:6). The head wasthe place for receiving blessing, as when Jacob laid his hands onManasseh and Ephraim to bless them (Gen. 48:14), or guilt, as whenSolomon declared that the guilt over the blood of the two Israelitecommanders murdered by Joab would rest “on the head of Joab andhis descendants forever” (1Kings 2:33). Lifting up thehead was associated with the giving of life in terms of success (Gen.40:13; Judg. 8:28; Ps. 27:6).

Becauseof the prominent physical role of the head as the topmost andpreeminent part of the body, it was often used as a symbol forleadership and the source of provision. Ancient medical writers suchas Hippocrates and Galen viewed the head as the leading member of thebody. Ancient political writers adapted the idea and applied it tomilitary and political leaders, such as Nero, who was called the“head” of Rome. For the political writers in particular,the emphasis often was on the power and authority of the head.

Examplesof this use of “head” as leader and source of provisionin the Bible include Judg. 10:18, where the leaders of Gilead declarethat whoever launches the attack against the Ammonites will be thehead of the inhabitants of Gilead. After the elders successfullyappeal to Jephthah, the people make him “head and commander”over them (Judg. 11:11). Christ’s ruling function is emphasizedin Col. 2:10, where he is called the “head over every power andauthority.” In Eph. 4:16 Paul states that Christ as the head isthe one “from [whom] the whole body ... grows andbuilds itself up in love.”

Inthe NT, Paul’s use of the metaphor for the relationship betweenChrist and the church and husbands and wives is particularlysignificant. When Paul applies the metaphor to Christ and the church,he implies that Christ provides both leadership to the body as wellas the nourishment needed for its continued growth. Thus, in Col.2:19 the head is the one “from whom the whole body ...grows as God causes it to grow,” and in Eph. 5:23–24Christ is “the head of the ... body,” the oneto whom the church submits.

Pauluses the head/body metaphor in reference to Christ with someflexibility. Whereas Christ is the head of the church, his body, inEphesians and Colossians, in 1Cor. 11:3 his headship is part ofa series in which God is the head of Christ, Christ is the head ofman, and man is the head of woman. In Eph. 1:22 he is head over theentire universe.

InEph. 5:21–33 the head/body metaphor is applied to therelationship between husbands and wives, and specifically incomparison with Christ and the church’s relationship as headand body. As Christ is the head of the church, so is the husband thehead of the wife. Thus, both provide leadership and growth to theirrespective bodies. It is important to note that the husband’srole as head is defined in terms of loving his wife and bringing herto holiness. The husband’s headship does not consist of anarbitrary power over his wife, especially one based on his owninterests and whims. Rather, it is a sacrificial leadership thatreflects Christ’s love for the church. It is a leadership inwhich he gives his life for his wife as Christ gave his life for thechurch and nourishes her by providing what is most beneficial forher. See also Head of the Church.

In the NT the most common word used for “minister”is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,”diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]).These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe thewhole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describeeither a special ministry performed by an official functionary(1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). Inthe early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchiesbut on services performed (1Tim. 3:1–13).

Theministry of Jesus.The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesusunderstood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that ofserving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, hecalled his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the newcommunity that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28;23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).

Jesus’ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NTwriters describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39;Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministryof Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).

Theministry of the church.The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues theseministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summaryof the overarching ministries of the church, which include speakingthe words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod.19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individualmembers took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks ofservice. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27;Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it wasanother believer’s responsibility to confront that waywardperson and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt.18:15–20).

Althoughministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were thosewith special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart forparticular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apartApollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7).The church called on special functionaries to carry out specificministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individualsto serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry therelief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19,23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, theelders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching andpreaching and healing for the whole church.

Allthe ministries of the church, whether performed by believers ingeneral or by some specially appointed functionary, were based ongifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26).God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works ofservice (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet.4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’srelationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians areequal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paulidentifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions:apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ callscertain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. Theones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the churchbut rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph.4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or herbecause those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor.4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results inleadership.

Itbecomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others forministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turnminister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim.2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is tobuild up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ(Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16;1Thess. 2:19–20).

In the NT the most common word used for “minister”is diakonos (e.g., 2Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,”diakonia (e.g., 1Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]).These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe thewhole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describeeither a special ministry performed by an official functionary(1Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). Inthe early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchiesbut on services performed (1Tim. 3:1–13).

Theministry of Jesus.The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesusunderstood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that ofserving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, hecalled his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the newcommunity that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28;23:8–12; cf. 1Pet. 5:3).

Jesus’ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NTwriters describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39;Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministryof Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching,teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).

Theministry of the church.The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues theseministry responsibilities. In 1Pet. 4:10–11 is a summaryof the overarching ministries of the church, which include speakingthe words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod.19:4–6; 1Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individualmembers took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks ofservice. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27;Philem. 13; 1Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it wasanother believer’s responsibility to confront that waywardperson and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt.18:15–20).

Althoughministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were thosewith special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart forparticular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apartApollos and Paul for special ministries (1Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7).The church called on special functionaries to carry out specificministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individualsto serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry therelief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2Cor. 8:19,23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, theelders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching andpreaching and healing for the whole church.

Allthe ministries of the church, whether performed by believers ingeneral or by some specially appointed functionary, were based ongifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1Cor. 12:4–26).God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works ofservice (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1Tim. 1:12; 1Pet.4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’srelationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians areequal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paulidentifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions:apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ callscertain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. Theones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the churchbut rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph.4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or herbecause those gifts were given for ministry to others (1Cor.4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results inleadership.

Itbecomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others forministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turnminister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2Tim.2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is tobuild up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ(Rom. 15:15–17; 1Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16;1Thess. 2:19–20).

Patience is a moral attribute that God possesses and thathumans may possess. One who has patience allows time to pass whilemaintaining a positive disposition, often in the face of suffering(Hab. 3:16; 2Tim. 3:10–11; James 5:10), as the KJVtranslation “longsuffering” implies (cf. Prov. 14:29NASB: “slow to anger”). The Scriptures universally speakof patience as an admirable quality and associate patience with othervirtues, such as inner peace (Ps. 37:7), wisdom (Prov. 19:11),persuasiveness (Prov. 25:15), humility (Eccles. 7:8), and kindness(Rom. 2:4; 1Cor. 13:4).

Numerouspassages praise God’s patience. Humans try (Isa. 7:13) and showcontempt for (Rom. 2:4) God’s patience, sometimes by refusingto be patient with others even though they themselves have receivedmercy from God (Matt. 18:23–35). Nonetheless, God displays hispatience by granting them eternal life through faith in Christ(1Tim. 1:16). In fact, God has patiently delayed destroying theworld because he is compassionate and wants all to come to repentance(2Pet. 3:9). God’s patience is evident even toward thosewho are destined for destruction (Rom. 9:22; 1Pet. 3:20).

Justas God is patient, he imparts patience to the Christian through hisHoly Spirit (Gal. 5:22). Like Abraham, the prophets, and any farmer,Christians are to exhibit patience, bearing with people both insideand outside the church (Eph. 4:2; 1Thess. 5:14–15) asthey wait eagerly for Christ’s return (Heb. 6:12–15;James 5:7–10). Those in Christian leadership must modelpatience and encourage others with patience (2Tim. 3:10; 4:2).

Patience is a moral attribute that God possesses and thathumans may possess. One who has patience allows time to pass whilemaintaining a positive disposition, often in the face of suffering(Hab. 3:16; 2Tim. 3:10–11; James 5:10), as the KJVtranslation “longsuffering” implies (cf. Prov. 14:29NASB: “slow to anger”). The Scriptures universally speakof patience as an admirable quality and associate patience with othervirtues, such as inner peace (Ps. 37:7), wisdom (Prov. 19:11),persuasiveness (Prov. 25:15), humility (Eccles. 7:8), and kindness(Rom. 2:4; 1Cor. 13:4).

Numerouspassages praise God’s patience. Humans try (Isa. 7:13) and showcontempt for (Rom. 2:4) God’s patience, sometimes by refusingto be patient with others even though they themselves have receivedmercy from God (Matt. 18:23–35). Nonetheless, God displays hispatience by granting them eternal life through faith in Christ(1Tim. 1:16). In fact, God has patiently delayed destroying theworld because he is compassionate and wants all to come to repentance(2Pet. 3:9). God’s patience is evident even toward thosewho are destined for destruction (Rom. 9:22; 1Pet. 3:20).

Justas God is patient, he imparts patience to the Christian through hisHoly Spirit (Gal. 5:22). Like Abraham, the prophets, and any farmer,Christians are to exhibit patience, bearing with people both insideand outside the church (Eph. 4:2; 1Thess. 5:14–15) asthey wait eagerly for Christ’s return (Heb. 6:12–15;James 5:7–10). Those in Christian leadership must modelpatience and encourage others with patience (2Tim. 3:10; 4:2).

The word “perfect” is used to translate Hebrewand Greek terms for ritual and moral wholeness. In the biblical textthe terms “whole,” “complete,” and “mature”are related to “perfect.” Often, “perfect”conveys the sense of something reaching its end and therefore its“completion” or “perfection.”

TheOT describes an animal or crop intended for sacrificial offering as“unblemished,” “whole,” or “perfect”(Heb. tamim). Though not translated “perfect” in the NIV,the term tamim frequently appears in cultic contexts of Israel’sworship (e.g., Exod. 12:5; Lev. 1:3, 10; 3:1, 6; 4:3). Neitherimperfect animals nor priests with physical defects were consideredfit for service in the temple because of their lack of wholeness(Lev. 21:16–23; 22:17–25). Wholeness itself reflectedGod’s holiness through physical wholeness (see Lev. 10:3).

Figuratively,the term tamim (or tam) refers to wholeness of heart and is appliedto human action or conduct, where it describes walking blamelesslybefore God (Noah [Gen. 6:9]; Abraham [Gen. 17:1; cf. Deut. 18:13];Job [Job 1:1]). God’s way is described as “perfect”(2Sam. 22:31), as is his knowledge (Job 37:16), and Ps. 19:7recounts how the “law of the Lord is perfect, refreshing thesoul.” Thus, God’s perfection or holiness must bereflected in God’s people: “Speak to the entire assemblyof Israel and say to them: ‘Be holy because I, the Lord yourGod, am holy’” (Lev. 19:2).

Inthe NT, “perfect” can refer to something of the higheststandard (James 1:17, 25) or to a fully “mature” adult(Eph. 4:13). “To make perfect” often appears with culticovertones. In Hebrews, Christ, our high priest, is “perfected”through suffering (2:10) and made eternally “perfect”(7:28). God’s love reaches “perfection” whenbelievers obey God’s word: “If anyone obeys his word,love for God is truly made complete in them” (1John 2:5).When “perfect” appears in the NT letters as applied tohumans, the idea is not of ethical perfection by degrees, but ratherit conveys a sense of undivided wholeness of heart before God. Thenotion of “perfection” in contemporary English conveysthe idea of “sinlessness,” but the biblical idea refersmore to something that is “whole” or “complete.”For something to be “perfect” means that it fulfills itsintended design: a house is “perfect” if it has fourwalls and a roof and can provide shelter.

The word “perfect” is used to translate Hebrewand Greek terms for ritual and moral wholeness. In the biblical textthe terms “whole,” “complete,” and “mature”are related to “perfect.” Often, “perfect”conveys the sense of something reaching its end and therefore its“completion” or “perfection.”

TheOT describes an animal or crop intended for sacrificial offering as“unblemished,” “whole,” or “perfect”(Heb. tamim). Though not translated “perfect” in the NIV,the term tamim frequently appears in cultic contexts of Israel’sworship (e.g., Exod. 12:5; Lev. 1:3, 10; 3:1, 6; 4:3). Neitherimperfect animals nor priests with physical defects were consideredfit for service in the temple because of their lack of wholeness(Lev. 21:16–23; 22:17–25). Wholeness itself reflectedGod’s holiness through physical wholeness (see Lev. 10:3).

Figuratively,the term tamim (or tam) refers to wholeness of heart and is appliedto human action or conduct, where it describes walking blamelesslybefore God (Noah [Gen. 6:9]; Abraham [Gen. 17:1; cf. Deut. 18:13];Job [Job 1:1]). God’s way is described as “perfect”(2Sam. 22:31), as is his knowledge (Job 37:16), and Ps. 19:7recounts how the “law of the Lord is perfect, refreshing thesoul.” Thus, God’s perfection or holiness must bereflected in God’s people: “Speak to the entire assemblyof Israel and say to them: ‘Be holy because I, the Lord yourGod, am holy’” (Lev. 19:2).

Inthe NT, “perfect” can refer to something of the higheststandard (James 1:17, 25) or to a fully “mature” adult(Eph. 4:13). “To make perfect” often appears with culticovertones. In Hebrews, Christ, our high priest, is “perfected”through suffering (2:10) and made eternally “perfect”(7:28). God’s love reaches “perfection” whenbelievers obey God’s word: “If anyone obeys his word,love for God is truly made complete in them” (1John 2:5).When “perfect” appears in the NT letters as applied tohumans, the idea is not of ethical perfection by degrees, but ratherit conveys a sense of undivided wholeness of heart before God. Thenotion of “perfection” in contemporary English conveysthe idea of “sinlessness,” but the biblical idea refersmore to something that is “whole” or “complete.”For something to be “perfect” means that it fulfills itsintended design: a house is “perfect” if it has fourwalls and a roof and can provide shelter.

Used as a reference for God’s people in the OT and NT,the Hebrew word qadosh(e.g., Ps. 16:3) and the Greek word hagios(e.g., Acts 9:13; 2Cor. 1:1) emphasize being singled out orconsecrated. The Hebrew root was also used to designate cultprostitutes (qadeshah)as “consecrated,” though in Scripture this use isrelatively infrequent (e.g., Gen. 38:21; Deut. 23:17). Another Hebrewword sometimes translated “saint” is khasid(e.g., 1Sam. 2:9; Pss. 30:4; 31:23 KJV), which emphasizesfaithfulness and devotion to God. In biblical terms, then, the saintsof God are those whom he has designated as belonging to him and wholive in faithfulness to him. They are not necessarily noted forexceptional holiness or meritorious acts. Thus, Paul places “hissaints” in parallel with “all who have believed”(2Thess. 1:10 NRSV).

TheBible speaks of saints as sometimes being in need (Rom. 16:2; 2Cor.8:4; 9:1, 12) and persecuted (Rev. 13:7), but also as called toendure (Rev. 13:10) and offer help, especially to other saints (Rom.12:13; Gal. 6:10; 1Tim. 5:10). The saints are the recipients ofthe faith (Jude 1:3), of grace (Rev. 22:21), and of special equippingfor ministry in the church (Eph. 4:12) and prayer (Rev. 5:8; 8:3–4).As those who belong to the Lord, the saints will be raised to eternallife (John 6:39; 1Cor. 15:22–23).

“Saint,”however, has come to function as a title given to Christians ofexceptional merit, beatified or canonized by the Roman CatholicChurch. The need for canonization and beatification arose from theCatholic doctrine of the veneration, invocation, and intercession ofthe saints (see Augustine, Quaest. Hept. 2.94; Faust. 20.21) and isconnected to the Catholic doctrine of the “communion of thesaints” (a phrase drawn from the Apostles’ Creed), whichincludes believers in heaven, on earth, and in purgatory, recognizingthem as saints in the general sense by virtue of their being redeemedand set apart for fellowship with God. These doctrines suggest thatjust as Paul, for example, sought the prayers of the church on earth(Rom. 15:30; 2Cor. 1:11), so also prayer by members of thechurch in heaven might be sought. Canonization, then, publiclyestablishes which persons can be surely known to be in heaven and maybe properly asked to intercede on behalf of the church on earth.

Protestants,on the basis of the unique intercession of Christ Jesus (1Tim.2:5), exclude invocation of heavenly saints as unnecessary andunwarranted. They further find no basis in the Scriptures for adoctrine of purgatory. Thus, Protestant understandings of thecommunion of the saints focus on the believers on earth, who, “beingunited to one another in love, have communion in each other’sgifts and graces and are obliged to the performance of such duties,public and private, as to conduce to their mutual good, both in theinward and outward man” (Westminster Confession of Faith 28.1).

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

The Hebrew expression “sons of God” (often translated as “children of God” in contemporary usage) is an important biblical concept and is used to describe a range of referents.

In the OT, the term is used to refer to angels (e.g., Job 1:6). They are subordinate divine beings, carrying out God’s mission on earth (Job 2:1). Compared to them, Yahweh’s incomparability is asserted in divine council (Ps. 89:6; cf. Deut. 32:8 NIV mg.). They are called upon to praise Yahweh for his creation (Ps. 29:1). They shout for joy at God’s creation (Job 38:7). In Gen. 6:2 the term refers to beings that are apparently of divine origin and to be contrasted with the “daughters of men” in that same passage. The sin mentioned in this passage refers to the cohabitation of divine beings and humans. This union is one of the impetuses for the flood, an indication of how bad things had gotten. The “order” of creation (Gen. 1), where humans are meant to be fruitful with their own kind, is here transgressed. Hence, God introduces further disorder by bringing back the waters of chaos to flood the earth.

Israel as a covenant nation is called “my son, my firstborn” by Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Jer. 31:9; Hos. 11:1). As son, Israel is expected to give proper reverence and honor for his father (Mal. 1:6). Although only one of many metaphors for Israel in the OT, Israel’s status as son is important for understanding the movement of the book of Exodus. Israel is to be delivered from Egyptian rule because Israel is God’s son. If Pharaoh continues to mistreat Israel, God will call judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn, as he did in the plague of death and the Red Sea incident.

Sonship is not exclusive to Israel. The Gentiles are also included in the future of God’s program (Isa. 19:25; Zech. 14:16). Likewise, in the NT all humans are God’s children (Eph. 4:6). More often, though, the term refers to those who are in Christ. The bond is spiritual, and often the concept of adoption is used (John 1:12; Rom. 9:6; Gal. 3:26; 4:5–7; 1 John 5:1). See also Sons of God

In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity ofbeing with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving andholy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed inthe Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, andhumankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. Theancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, ifnot all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visibleworld.

OldTestament

TheOT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh(“wind” or “breath”) to describe force andeven life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing firstinstance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreatedworld (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word,neshamah (“breath”) is used as God breathed into Adam’snostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathedhis own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moralobligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing actof God.

TheOT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion orbreath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of theuse of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen.7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps.77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), agenerally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat ofconversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God(2Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).

Onoccasion in the OT, spirits are labeled “evil” (Judg.9:23 ESV, NRSV, NASB). In the case of an evil spirit tormenting KingSaul, the spirit was identified as “from the Lord”(1Sam. 16:14–15, 23). According to the perspective of theancients, once a person was possessed by a divine spirit, departureof such a spirit meant possession by a different spirit (1Sam.16:14). Such a perspective was common in the ancient Near Eastern andMediterranean worlds and stemmed from the religious fervor of Semiticnomads.

NewTestament

TheNT authors used the Greek term pneumato convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the humanspirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinctfrom the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable ofrejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing andbecoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit”Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law werethinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “wasdeeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a lovedone (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit(John 19:30).

Accordingto Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work ofconversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the humanspirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to thosepeople who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).

Humanbeings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued inMediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels andthe book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved inexorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:28–33; Mark 1:21–28;7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).

Theapostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom.7:6; 1Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a strugglebetween flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom.8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent inPauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualisticunderstanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commandingthat “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1Thess.5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (theHoly Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being deadbecause of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucifiedand resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore areencouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.

HolySpirit

God’sSpirit is described in the opening chapters of Genesis as partakingin creation. His Spirit likewise is seen throughout the OT as anagent in establishing God’s people as a nation and a people ofhis own. Leaders of Israel were chosen and possessed by the Spirit toassist in leading the people into God’s will (Deut. 34:9; Judg.6:34; 15:14; 1Sam. 11:6; 16:23). Typically, the moment theSpirit of God descended on a leader, miraculous fortitude, wisdom,and power resulted. The Spirit also provided whatever was needed forGod’s prophets—courage, inspiration, and miracles (Num.11:25; 1Sam. 10:10; Isa. 11:2; Ezek. 2:2; Dan. 4:8; Joel 2:28).The office of prophet included prophesying both in the king’scourt and among the people of the land. As the Spirit came on aprophet of God, the prophet would correct the king’s andothers’ behavior and at times foretell the future or theoutcome of possible decisions.

Inthe Synoptic Gospels, the Holy Spirit functions in much the same wayas in the OT. One such function appears in Luke’s birthnarrative when the angel answers Mary’s question as to how shemight conceive while a virgin (Luke 1:34): “The Holy Spiritwill come on you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you”(1:35). The Greek verb translated “will overshadow you”is used in the LXX to describe God’s protective nature (Pss.91:4; 140:7). Likewise, the coming of God’s Spirit presentedempowerment (Acts 1:8). Thus, Mary received both divine empowermentand protection. As the birth narrative continues, Luke records howother characters in the story, Elizabeth and Zechariah, were filledwith the Spirit when Mary came to visit while pregnant with Jesus andwhen John the Baptist, the forerunner of the Messiah, was born (1:41,67). The evangelists record the Spirit descending on Jesus at thetime of his baptism (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32–34)and describe him as full ofthe Spirit when he was led by theSpirit into the desert (Luke 4:1). Finally, in John’s Gospelthe Spirit is the promised comforter whom Jesus will give to hisfollowers. He will testify about Christ (John 15:26).

Inthe new covenant the Spirit-possession of the OT gave way tobelievers’ reception of the Spirit at conversion. In Acts theHoly Spirit is presented as instrumental in carrying out the missionof the church, providing power and signs as well as moving andmotivating missionaries. The apostle Paul attributes to the HolySpirit the function of imbuing believers and the church with anassortment of virtues (Gal. 5:22), gifts (Rom. 12:7–8; 1Cor.12:1–11), and ministers (Eph. 4:7–13). He uses the ideaof life in the Spirit as a point of contrast with life in the flesh.In John’s letters the Spirit is described as providingdiscernment of truth (1John 4:6). See also Holy Spirit.

While a modern understanding of the word “truth”suggests a direct correspondence to fact or reality, Scripturepresents truth in broader terms.

OldTestament.The OT not only portrays truth as an honest factual account but alsoplaces it within a relationship characterized by faithfulness andreliability. The Hebrew word translated as “truth,”’emet, also is translated as “faithfulness,”“security,” “reliability.” The word oftenappears juxtaposed to words that involve a relationship, including“love” (Ps. 26:3), “kindness” (Gen. 24:27),“mercy” (Ps. 40:11), “justice” (Isa.59:14–15), and “righteousness” (Isa. 48:1). Truthis attributed primarily not to external facts, but rather to a personor community in faithfulness.

Oftendescribed as something that belongs to God (Ps. 25:5), truth isassociated with his love (26:3). Yahweh is the God of truth (31:5)and is near to all who call on him in truth (145:18). God’struth protects (140:11) and guides (43:3). Following God meanswalking in his truth (26:3). God speaks the truth (Isa. 45:19) andvalues truth (Prov. 12:22), and he expects his people to do the same(Prov. 23:23).

Ofteninvolving speech, truth is a crucial element for justice in acommunity, especially in a court setting. A truthful witness gives anhonest testimony and brings healing, but a false witness tells liesand brings destruction (Prov. 12:17–18). Yet only the truthwill endure (12:19). Truth is needed to make sound judgments (Zech.8:16). The absence of truth in Israel’s society is denounced bythe prophets, who declare truth to have stumbled (Isa. 59:14) andeven to have perished (Jer. 7:28). In Jer. 5:1 it is said that Godwill forgive the entire city of Jerusalem if one person is found whodeals honestly and seeks the truth (cf. Gen. 18:26–32). No suchperson is found. Nevertheless, it is God’s vision for Jerusalemto be called the “City of Truth” (Zech. 8:3 NASB, NKJV).

SeveralOT narratives display how truth may not be evident in everyrelationship. In 1Kings 22:16 (//2Chron. 18:15)King Ahab makes the prophet Micaiah repeatedly swear to be tellingGod’s truth because he (rightly) suspects the prophet of lying.As an Egyptian ruler, Joseph requires his brothers to prove the truthof their words (Gen. 42:16), perhaps keeping in mind the history ofhis ancestor Abraham’s dealings with the Egyptian king(12:10–20). Sometimes the truth of one relationship holdspriority over duties involved in another relationship. For example,in Exod. 1:15–21 the Hebrew midwives have a truthfulrelationship with (Hebrew) babies and with God even as they lie tothe king of Egypt.

NewTestament.In the NT, truth signifies the gospel (Eph. 1:13) as well as Jesushimself (John 14:6). Whereas Pilate asks, “What is truth?”(John 18:38), the NT answers, “Jesus!” The topic of truthis predominant in the Gospel of John. Jesus is full of grace andtruth (John 1:14), tells the truth he heard from God (8:44), and infact is the truth (5:33). Truth involves action. Whoever lives by thetruth comes out of darkness into the light (3:21). Worship of Godmust be done in spirit and in truth (4:23–24). It is the truththat will set people free (8:32). Jesus calls the Holy Spirit the“Spirit of truth” (15:26), whose role is to guide thefollowers of Jesus in all truth, speaking what he hears from theFather (John 15–16).

Althoughthe topic of truth is seldom mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels, thephrase “I tell you the truth” is attributed to Jesusseventy-eight times (e.g., Matt. 5:18; 6:2; Mark 8:12; 9:41; Luke9:27; 23:43; John 1:51; 13:21 NCV), showing it to be a major theme.The apostle Paul reminds the church at Corinth that love rejoiceswith the truth (1Cor. 13:6). Truth describes not only knowledgeof reality (Acts 24:8) but also the knowledge of Christ (2Cor.11:10) as well as the type of life that a follower of Christ shouldexhibit (Gal. 2:14; Titus 1:1). Truth can be distorted (Acts 20:30),suppressed (Rom. 1:18), and rejected (Rom. 2:8). While truth caninvolve speech (Eph. 4:15), those who belong to the truth show it bytheir love (1John 1:6; 3:18–20).

The idea of unity has always been significant for God’speople and their relatedness to one another. In the OT, unitycentered on the covenant and on Yahweh, who is the heart of thecovenant. In 2Chron. 30:12 the hand of God was on the people togive them unity to carry out the tasks that had been ordered by theking at God’s command. In Ps. 133:1 the psalmist notes thegoodness of the unity of the extended family, no doubt also to beextended to the unity of God’s people, Israel.

Inthe NT, unity centers on Jesus Christ, who is the heart of the newcovenant. John emphasizes this unity as he records the teaching ofJesus on the relationship of the Father and the Son (John 14). TheFather is in the Son, and the Son is in the Father. In John 16 Jesusnotes that this is the standard by which oneness is to be compared;the disciples are to be one, just as the Father and theSon areone. There will also be oneness between the triune God and his peopleas the Holy Spirit comes to reside in the disciples. Unity and itsvarious outcomes are the subject of Jesus’ final prayer in thegarden (John 17).

InActs 1 Luke notes that the disciples were unified after theresurrection and ascension as they worshiped and prayed together inthe upper room (v.14 NASB, NET: “with one mind”[hom*othymadon]). Luke uses the same word in Acts 2:46 when he notesthe same unity for the early church as they gathered for the sake ofworship and praise to God in the temple (cf. 4:24 [unison prayer forpower from God]; 5:12 [meeting together at Solomon’sColonnade]; 15:25 [unanimity in a decision to send representatives toAntioch]). Indeed, the story of the beginning of the early church isthe story of the fulfillment of Christ’s command to be unified.It is sometimes supposed, probably correctly, that the apostles fromJerusalem went to the Samaritan church to lay on hands for thebestowal of the Spirit in order that the long-standingJewish-Samaritan rift might not destroy the unity of the growing body(see Acts 8:14–17).

InEph. 4:3 Paul commands the believers to be zealous to keep theirunity based in the Spirit as they are bound together by the peacethat Christ gives. Later, in 4:13, Paul notes that God has givengifted people to the body of Christ so that the believers may betrained for the ministry of building up that body. This has its goalin the unity of believers and maturity of the faith in the knowledgeof Christ—so that the body might be like him. So the unity ofbelievers here is linked to the ubiquitous NT goal of Christlikeness.This also entails rejecting false teaching (4:14).

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

The visible and bodily ascent of Jesus from earth to heavenconcluding his earthly ministry, which then continued through thepromised Holy Spirit, given at Pentecost.

Adetailed historical account of the ascension is given only by Luke(Luke 24:51; Acts 1:4–11 [cf. Mark 16:19, in the longer endingto Mark’s Gospel]). The event, however, was anticipated inJohn’s Gospel (John 6:62; 20:17).

Theascension is frequently implied throughout the NT by reference to thecomplex of events that began with the death of Jesus and ended withhis session at the right hand of God in glory. Paul writes of thedivine-human Christ’s ascent to the heavenly realms as thebeginning of his supreme cosmic reign in power (Eph. 1:20–23)and as the basis for holy living (Col. 3:1–4; 1 Tim.3:16). In Hebrews, the ascension is a crucial stage that marks offthe completed work of Jesus on earth, in which he offered himself asthe perfect and final sacrifice for sin (9:24–26), from hiscontinuing work in heaven as our great high priest, which isdescribed in terms of sympathy (4:14–16) and intercession(7:25). Peter makes the most direct reference to the ascension,explaining that Jesus, who suffered, is resurrected and “hasgone into heaven” (1 Pet. 3:22). Therefore, just as Jesus,the righteous sufferer, was vindicated by God, so too will his peoplewho suffer for doing good.

Paulunderstands the OT as predicting Christ’s ascension (Eph.4:7–10; cf. Ps. 68:18) and containing incidents that in someway prefigure it (2 Kings 2:11–12).

Theascension is significant for at least three reasons. First, Christ’sdeath could not have full effect until he entered the heavenlysanctuary. From heaven he acts as advocate and communicates tobelievers through the Holy Spirit all the gifts and blessings that hedied on the cross to gain (Heb. 4:14–16; 1 John 2:1).Second, glorified humanity is now in God’s presence,guaranteeing that we likewise will be raised up with body and soul toshare the glory yet to be revealed (John 14:2; 17:24; Eph. 2:4–6).Third, the ascension previews the manner of Christ’s secondcoming (Acts 1:11). Jesus’ ascension was followed by hisenthronement in heaven, where he reigns (1 Cor. 15:25) and fromwhich he will physically return in the same glorified body as judge(Luke 21:27). See also Advent, Second; Second Coming.

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

An older translation of the Greek word episkopos, which theNIV translates as “overseer.” The word occurs five timesin the NT (Acts 20:28; Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:7; 1 Pet.2:25).

Theword episkopos was used in the Greco-Roman world to describe a largevariety of financial, political, and religious officials. The LXXuses the word to describe priestly authorities (2 Kings 11:18),temple inspectors (2 Kings 12:11), and military officers (Num.31:14; 2 Kings 11:15), among other roles. The DSS evidence anofficial (Heb. mebaqqer) similar to the overseer in the NT. Nearlyanyone with duties of ruling and oversight could be called anoverseer in ancient Greco-Roman and pre-Christian Jewish writings.

Overseersfirst appear in the NT in Acts 20:28. This verse is in the context ofPaul’s farewell speech to the elders of the Ephesian church,charging them to watch carefully over the welfare of the church. Acomparison of Acts 20:17 and 20:28 shows that “elder”(presbyteros) and “overseer” (episkopos) are basicallyinterchangeable terms (the two are explicitly equated in Titus1:5–7). The overseer in Acts 20:28 is specifically equipped bythe Holy Spirit to rule (shepherd), which is the same job of elders(e.g., Acts 14:23; 15; 16:4; 1 Thess. 5:12–13; 1 Tim.5:17; Titus 1:5–9; 1 Pet. 5:5). This shepherding functionis primarily one of protecting the church from the false teacherswho, Paul knows, will sneak in and distort the truth of God’sword once he leaves (Acts 20:29–31). Although overseers are notspecifically mentioned in Eph. 4:11, the idea of shepherding(pastoring) the flock of God is one of the gifts given to the churchfor its edification by Jesus Christ.

InPhil. 1:1 Paul addresses the church in Philippi, making a distinctionbetween the entire body of the saints and the roles of overseer anddeacon.

In1 Tim. 3:2 and Titus 1:7 is found the most information about theroles of overseers, whereas 1 Tim. 3:1 describes the office ofoversight. The job of the overseer is defined more in terms ofvirtues than specific duties (1 Tim. 3:2–7; Titus 1:7–9).In this regard, the qualifications for overseers are quite similar tostandard lists of virtues in contemporary Greco-Roman literature. Theoverseer must be of outstanding moral character, self-controlled inall areas of life, an experienced Christian, and a good leader in hisown household. However, two specific Christian duties stand out inthe biblical lists: teaching and refuting error (1 Tim. 3:2;Titus 1:9). These two abilities are especially important in thePastoral Epistles because false teaching is a particularly pressingthreat in the churches addressed. Overseers must also disciplineerrant church members (1 Tim. 5:20; 2 Tim. 3:16; 4:2).Although it is difficult to draw hard-and-fast distinctions betweenthe various teaching and authority roles mentioned in the NT, anoverseer is primarily called to watch over, protect, and teach thechurch in an official capacity.

Finally,in 1 Pet. 2:25 Jesus Christ is called the “Shepherd andOverseer” of all Christians. Jesus is the paradigm for theloving care and protection of the church that all undershepherds(overseers/bishops) are called to emulate.

Thereis evidence that in the early church some (such as Clement of Rome)saw an overseer as equal to an elder. As early as the beginning ofthe second century, others (such as Ignatius) argued that overseerswere the chief figures in a detailed church hierarchy, as well asbeing direct successors to the apostles.

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

The Apostles’ Creed announces that following his deathand burial, Jesus “descended into hell.” Is there abiblical basis for such a statement?

Thisdoctrine is drawn from various NT passages, but especially 1Pet.3:18–20, which says that Jesus “was put to death in thebody but made alive in the Spirit. After being made alive, he wentand made proclamation to the imprisoned spirits--—to those whowere disobedient long ago when God waited patiently in the days ofNoah while the ark was being built.” And 1Pet. 4:6 says,“For this is the reason the gospel was preached even to thosewho are now dead” (cf. Acts 2:25–31; Eph. 4:8–10).

Thereare various interpretations of these passages. First, some claim thatChrist preached to the people of Noah’s day, either throughNoah or in a preincarnate state. Second, some assert that Christdescended to Hades after his death and preached to Noah’scontemporaries who had died in the flood. The “spirits”would be the spirits of dead people. A third view is that Christdescended to Hades (or hell) after his death and there proclaimed hisvictory to the fallen angels (“spirits”). These may havebeen the “sons of God” of Gen. 6:1–4 (see 2Pet.2:4; Jude 6). The intertestamental Jewish book 1Enoch (secondcentury BC) develops an interpretation of this puzzling Genesis text,telling of angels who had brought evil to the world by marrying womenand fathering demons. Before the flood they had been put in prisonunder the earth. A fourth view is similar to the third but claimsthat Jesus’ proclamation to these fallen angels took place notduring a descent into hell, but at his resurrection and ascension.

Thislast interpretation is the most likely one. Jesus’ descent to“Hades” (meaning the place of the dead) refers generallyto his death, not to an entrance into hell. Jesus’ proclamationwas his announcement of victory over sin, Satan, and death at hisresurrection and ascension. Peter here is reassuring his readers thatJesus rules, and that his death and resurrection have sealed the fateof all powers, real or not, that evoke fear. Paul says simply thatJesus triumphed over all such powers by the cross (Col. 2:15). Jesusdid not go to hell; rather, like every believer, when he died, hisspirit went to be with the Father in heaven (Luke 23:43), to remainthere until reunited with his body at his resurrection.

Scripture describes wind as a powerful force that is underGod’s command. The Hebrew word ruakhsometimes is translated as “wind” but other times canmean “breath,” as well as “spirit” (Gen.1:2). The Greek word for “spirit,” pneuma,hints of a similar range of meaning, although another word is mostoften used in the NT to denote wind.

OldTestament. Throughoutthe OT wind is used by God to fulfill his purposes. Psalm 148:8declares that winds do God’s bidding. Yahweh keeps the wind instorehouses until they are needed (Ps. 135:7; Jer. 10:13). God useswind to protect and provide for his people. For instance, God sends awind over the earth to cause the floodwaters surrounding the ark torecede (Gen. 8:1), a strong east wind to drive back the sea duringthe exodus from Egypt (Exod. 14:21), and a wind that drives quail infrom the sea to serve as food for the Israelites in the wilderness(Num. 11:31).

Windcan also be an agent of God’s destruction. God sends a plagueupon Egypt by making an east wind blow locusts all across the land;afterward, God uses a west wind to blow the locusts into the sea(Exod. 10:13–19). In the book of Job a mighty wind from thedesert causes the house of Job’s eldest son to collapse,killing Job’s seven sons and three daughters (Job 1:19). In thebook of Jonah a great wind sent by God threatens to destroy Jonah’sship, and a scorching east wind later causes Jonah to grow faint anddesire death (Jon. 1:4; 4:8). The prophetic books use the subject ofwind in communicating God’s judgment (e.g., Isa. 28:2; 64:6;Ezek. 5:2; 13:11).

Whilea single wind is able to blow in several directions (Eccles. 1:6),many passages specify four winds from the four quarters of theheavens. The north wind brings rain (Prov. 25:23), while the southwind brings heat (Job 37:17), both of which are useful for growing agarden (Song 4:16). Only one verse refers to the west windspecifically (Exod. 10:19), but numerous verses refer to the eastwind as an agent of destruction, often appearing along with militaryterms. When let loose by God (Ps. 78:26), the east wind may shatterships (Ps. 48:7), and those in its path will scatter (Jer. 18:17) orshrivel (Ezek. 19:12). In Hos. 12:1 God accuses Israel of pursuingthe east wind along with multiplying lies and violence. Together, thefour winds can be sent to bring destruction (Jer. 49:36) or to bringlife (Ezek. 37:9). They also appear in the visions of Daniel (Dan.7:2; 8:8; 11:4; cf. Rev. 7:1).

Godrides on the wings of the wind on cherubim (Ps. 18:10; 2Sam.22:11), with the clouds as his chariot (Ps. 104:3). In Ps. 104:4 thewinds are called God’s “messengers.” This imageryis strikingly similar to ancient descriptions of the Canaanite godBaal, although Scripture adds that it is Yahweh who created the wind(Job 28:25; Amos 4:13). Yahweh’s power is not contingent uponwind, as Elijah learns when he experiences the presence of Yahweh inthe whisper and not the wind (or the earthquake) after his successfulcontest against the prophets of Baal (1Kings 19:11–12).

Thewisdom literature focuses upon other characteristics of wind besidesits power. The transient nature of wind is significant, as wind isthe inheritance of those who bring trouble upon their family (Prov.11:29). Ecclesiastes continually refers to all things done under thesun as “a chasing after the wind” (e.g., 1:14, 17). Emptytalk is spoken of as wind (Job 8:2). The function of wind to blowaway chaff is also used to declare the fate of the wicked (e.g., Ps.1:4; cf. Job 21:18). The unpredictability of wind serves as ametaphor for the mystery of God’s actions (Eccles. 11:5).

NewTestament.In the NT, the Gospels reveal the divine nature of Jesus byemphasizing his ability to command the wind (Matt. 8:26–27).Jesus declares that the Son of Man will gather his elect from thefour winds (Matt. 24:31; Mark 13:27). Wind is a metaphor in John 3:8for the mystery and unpredictability of those born of the Spirit.Jesus uses the image of empty talk as wind when he refers to John theBaptist as a prophet rather than a reed swayed by the wind (Matt.11:7; Luke 7:24). In Eph. 4:14 false teaching is referred to as wind.It is wind that easily sways the one who doubts (James 1:6). Finally,a correlation between wind and the Holy Spirit occurs when a soundlike a violent wind occurs at the time when the Holy Spirit fills allthose in the house at Pentecost (Acts 2:2).

The word “forbearance” is used in some English versions to translate various Hebrew and Greek words meaning “patience,” “endurance,” or “long-suffering.”

In the NT, the noun anochē is used with “kindness” and “patience” to note God’s patience with humankind in his offer of repentance (Rom. 2:4). He shows patience in the cross (3:25–26). Thus, forbearance is an attribute of God.

Jesus uses the verb anechō when he asks how long he will have to “put up with” the generation of his first coming (Matt. 17:17). Paul asks the Corinthians to bear with him as he defends his apostleship (2Cor. 11:1), since they have well put up with false teachers (2Cor. 11:19–20). He commands the disciples in the churches to be tolerant with one another (Eph. 4:2). Paul notes that he forbears or endures persecution (1Cor. 4:12), and he commends the Thessalonians’ patience in the face of persecution suffered for the sake of the gospel (2Thess. 1:4).

Evangelism is the proclamation of the “evangel”(Gk. euangelion), the good news, of Jesus Christ. The content of theevangel includes Jesus’ birth, which was announced as good newsto Zechariah by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:19) and by the angels tothe shepherds (Luke 2:10). The good news speaks of the reality ofJesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:18), is described as a message ofgrace (Acts 20:24) and reconciliation to God through the sacrificedbody of Christ (Col. 1:22–23), and includes the expectation ofa day of divine judgment (Rom. 2:16). Paul preached the gospel (fromOld English gōdspel, “good news”) message, which heclaimed had its origin with God, not humans (Gal. 1:11–12). Hesummarizes this message in 1Cor. 15:3b–5: “thatChrist died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he wasburied, that he was raised on the third day according to theScriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve.”The introduction to the Gospel of Mark (1:1) may indicate that thiswritten gospel could serve evangelistic purposes.

Evangelisticefforts in the New Testament.Numerous figures throughout the NT participated in evangelisticendeavors. John the Baptist’s preaching about the comingMessiah is described as evangelism (Luke 3:18). Evangelism was acharacteristic activity of Jesus’ own ministry (Matt. 4:23;9:35; Mark 1:14; Luke 20:1), which focused on proclaiming the adventof the kingdom of God (Luke 4:43; 8:1) and at times was targetedtoward the poor (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22). Jesus commanded thosewho follow him to engage in evangelism. He sent out the twelveapostles for evangelistic purposes (Luke 9:2), and he issued theGreat Commission to this end (Matt. 28:18–20).

Themissionary enterprise recorded in Acts demonstrates the efforts ofthe earliest Christians to spread the gospel. The apostles inJerusalem (Acts 5:42) proclaimed the gospel in spite of greatopposition and persecution, and believers who were scattered outsideJerusalem because of persecution spread the gospel in new locales(8:4). Philip evangelized Samaritans and an Ethiopian (8:12, 35). Theministry of Paul and Barnabas is characterized as preaching the goodnews (14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18). Philip, one of the sevenchosen to distribute food (6:5), was given the name “theEvangelist” (21:8). Timothy, additionally, is said to be Paul’sfellow worker in evangelism (1Thess. 3:2; cf. 2Tim. 4:5).

Evangelismwas a central part of Paul’s ministry (Rom. 1:9; 1Cor.1:17; 15:1–2; Eph. 6:19; 1Thess. 2:2, 9). He indicated anexplicit interest in sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Rom. 15:16;Gal. 1:16; 2:7; Eph. 3:8) and with those who had never heard it (Rom.15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16), and he expressed a desire to preach the gospelat Rome (Rom. 1:15). Paul wrote of the necessity of evangelism inorder for people to be saved (Rom. 10:15), and he preached the gospelmessage free of charge (1Cor. 9:16, 18; 2Cor. 11:7). Helisted the role of the evangelist in the church along with apostles,prophets, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).

Goaland methods of evangelism.Evangelism’s goal is to spread the gospel across ethnic andreligious boundaries until it reaches all nations (Mark 13:10; Col.1:23). To this end, Acts details an intentional effort by theearliest Christians to share the gospel with those who came from bothJewish and non-Jewish backgrounds. Acts 8:25 records Peter and John’sevangelistic efforts in Samaritan villages, and Acts 15:7 identifiesPeter as an evangelist to Gentiles. An outreach specifically toGentiles is chronicled in Acts 11:20, and Paul’s intentionalprogram of traveling from city to city further contributes to thisgoal (Rom. 15:19).

Theevangelists recorded in the NT demonstrate a range of methods andapproaches to sharing the good news. They often began with a point ofcontact from the religious worldview of their audience. For instance,Philip used Scripture as a starting point in speaking with anindividual who was familiar with some portion of it (Acts 8:35).Similarly, when addressing Jews, Paul preached Jesus as thefulfillment of various OT Scriptures (Acts 13:32–41), but whenpreaching the gospel to the Greeks in Athens, he acknowledged theirreligiosity and their previous worship of one called “anunknown God” (17:22–23). Evangelists sought opportunitiesto gain an audience, and Paul even took advantage of an illness tostay with the Galatians and share the gospel with them (Gal. 4:13).Finally, much of the evangelistic work in the early church wascoupled with miraculous signs and wonders, which served toauthenticate the message being proclaimed (Rom. 15:19; 1Thess.1:5).

The common experience/sharing of something with someone else.In the NT, the most common Greek word group to express this idea hasthe root koin- (“common”), with the cognate verbkoinōneō, noun koinōnia, and adjective koinos. But theconcept of fellowship extends well beyond this single word family andfinds expression in a variety of different contexts.

Fellowshipbetween the Members of the Trinity

TheGospel of John makes several claims about the fellowship that themembers of the Trinity have experienced with each other from alleternity. Jesus claims, “I and the Father are one”(10:30) and “It is the Father, living in me, who is doing hiswork” (14:10). Regarding the Holy Spirit, Jesus says, “Hewill glorify me because it is from me that he will receive what hewill make known to you. All that belongs to the Father is mine”(16:14–15). The Son has even shared in the Father’s gloryfrom before the creation of the world (17:5). Within the unity of theGodhead, the individual members experience perfect fellowship as theyshare in the fullness of deity.

Fellowshipbetween Jesus and Outcasts

Duringhis earthly ministry, Jesus modeled God’s love for themarginalized by associating with them. Such fellowship often took theform of sharing meals with outcasts such as tax collectors andsinners (Mark 2:15–17; Luke 5:29–32; 7:36–50;19:1–10), a practice that provoked sharp criticism from thePharisees (Luke 15:1–2). In Luke 15:3–32, Jesus tellsthree parables in response to such criticism. These parables indicatethat his fellowship with sinners demonstrates God’s love forthe lost and the joy that comes from restored fellowship with God.Such table fellowship served as a foretaste of the eschatologicalmessianic banquet, when all of God’s people (Jew and Gentilealike) will eat together in the kingdom of God as the fellowship ofthe forgiven (Matt. 8:11; Luke 13:29–30; Rev. 19:6–9).

Fellowshipbetween Believers and God

Theclose and intimate fellowship that the members of the Trinityexperience with one another is something that Jesus prays for hispeople to experience themselves (John 17:20–26). He asks thatbelievers “may be one, Father, just as you are in me and I amin you. May they also be in us so that the world may believe that youhave sent me” (17:21). Just as the Father is in Jesus and Jesusis in the Father, believers are described as being in both the Fatherand the Son. The stated purpose for such fellowship is twofold: thatthe world may know and believe that the Father has sent the Son, andthat the Father loves believers even as he has loved the Son (17:21,23). Central to this fellowship between God and believers is thesharing of the glory that the Father and the Son experience (17:22).Jesus expresses similar truths in John 15:1–11 when he speaksof himself as the true vine and his followers as the branches whomust remain in him because “apart from me you can donothing”(v.5).

Althoughfellowship with God is something that Christ has purchased for hispeople through his death and resurrection, it can be broken by sin inthe believer’s life: “If we claim to have fellowship withhim and yet walk in the darkness, we lie and do not live out thetruth” (1John 1:6). When sin does break a believer’sfellowship with God, we are reassured, “If we confess our sins,he is faithful and just and will forgive us our sins and purify usfrom all unrighteousness” (1:9). This restoration of fellowshipis based on the work of Jesus to plead our case before theFather(2:1).

Paulfrequently speaks of the believer’s fellowship with Christ,even though he rarely uses the word “fellowship” to speakof this reality. It is God who calls the believer into fellowshipwith Christ (1Cor. 1:9), but such fellowship involves both the“power of his resurrection and participation in his sufferings,becoming like him in his death” (Phil. 3:10). When believerscelebrate the Lord’s Supper, they are participating in the bodyand blood of Christ (1Cor. 10:16–17). Far morefrequently, Paul expresses the concept of fellowship with Christ byhis use of the phrase “with Christ.” Believers have beencrucified, buried, raised, clothed, and seated in the heavenly realmswith Christ (Rom. 6:4–9; 2Cor. 13:4; Gal. 2:20–21;Eph. 2:5–6; Col. 2:12–13; 3:1–4). They also sharein the inheritance that Christ has received from the Father (Rom.8:16–17) and one day will reign with him (2Tim.2:12).

Fellowshipbetween Believers and Others

Thefellowship that believers have with one another is an extension oftheir fellowship with God. John wrote, “We proclaim to you whatwe have seen and heard, so that you also may have fellowship with us.And our fellowship is with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ”(1John 1:3). Just as walking in darkness falsifies a believer’sclaim to fellowship with God, so also walking in the light isnecessary for fellowship with other believers (1:6–7). Paulstrikes a similar note when he says, “Do not be yoked togetherwith unbelievers. For what do righteousness and wickedness have incommon? Or what fellowship can light have with darkness? What harmonyis there between Christ and Belial? Or what does a believer have incommon with an unbeliever?” (2Cor. 6:14–15). Thepoint is not to avoid all contact with unbelievers (cf. 1Cor.5:9–10), but rather that the believer is so fundamentallyidentified with Christ that to identify with unbelievers should beavoided.

Becausethey are joined to Christ by faith, believers share a wide variety ofexperiences and blessings with each other. In the broadest sense,they share in the gospel and its blessings (1Cor. 9:23; Phil.1:5–7; Philem. 6; 2Pet. 1:4), especially the Spirit(2Cor. 13:13–14; Phil. 2:1). But the most common sharedexperience is suffering. When believers suffer because of theiridentification with Christ, they are said to share in Christ’ssuffering (Phil. 3:10; 1Pet. 4:13). In addition to thisvertical element, there is a horizontal aspect. Because believers areunited in one body (1Cor. 12:12–13; Eph. 4:4–6),when one believer suffers, the entire body shares in that suffering(2Cor. 1:7; Heb. 10:33; Rev. 1:9).

Fromthe earliest days of the church, believers found very tangible waysto demonstrate that their fellowship was rooted in their common faithin Jesus. Immediately after Pentecost, “they devoted themselvesto the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking ofbread and to prayer.... All the believers weretogether and had everything in common” (Acts 2:42–44).This common experience led believers to voluntarily sell theirpossessions and share with any who had a need (2:45; 4:32). Thismeeting of very practical needs was motivated by a common experienceof God’s abundant generosity in freely giving his Son (Rom.8:32). The self-sacrificial sharing of resources became a staple ofthe early church (Rom. 12:13; Gal. 6:6; 1Tim. 6:18) andprovided an opportunity for Paul to demonstrate the unity of thechurch when he collected money from Gentile churches to alleviate thesuffering of Jewish Christians in Judea (Rom. 15:26–27; 2Cor.8–9).

Conclusion

Biblicalfellowship is not merely close association with other believers. TheNT emphasizes what believers share in Christ rather than whom theyshare it with. True biblical fellowship between believers is anoutworking of their fellowship with God through the gospel.

The English word “gospel” translates the Greekword euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being usedseventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu= “good,”angelion= “announcement”), in its contemporary usein the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather adeclaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empirewith reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, whowas thought of as a savior with divine status. These events includeddeclarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and hisaccession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be tracedto the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to thecoming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This goodnews, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’spromises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.

TheGospel Message

Theapostle Paul recognizes that the gospel is centered on the death,burial, and resurrection of Jesus (1Cor. 15:1–5). Hestates that this gospel is the power of God for the salvation ofeveryone who believes (Rom. 1:16), a sacred trust (1Tim. 1:11),the word of truth (Eph. 1:13), and an authoritative pronouncementthat requires a response (Rom. 10:16; 2Cor. 11:4; 2Thess.1:8). The declaration of this good news is found on the lips of Jesusin the Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18), who calls people torespond in repentance and belief (Mark 1:15). The good news is alsoin the early apostolic preaching, where it is associated with theproclamation of Christ (Acts 5:42; 8:35; 11:20).

Therecords of apostolic preaching in Acts are records of the earliestpublic declaration of this gospel. The apostle Peter gives three suchspeeches (Acts 2:14–41; 3:11–4:4; 10:34–43), whosecontent can be summarized as follows. The age of fulfillment hasdawned through the birth, life, ministry, and resurrection of JesusChrist (2:22–31), which has ushered in the “latter days”foretold by the prophets (3:18–26). Jesus, by his resurrection,has been exalted to the right hand of God as the head of the newIsrael (2:32–36), and the Holy Spirit has been given to thechurch as the sign of Christ’s present power and exaltation(10:44–48). This age will reach its consummation at the returnof Christ (3:20–21), and in response to this gospel an appealis made for repentance, with the offer of forgiveness, the HolySpirit, and salvation (2:37–41).

Thisdeclaration of the gospel is concerned primarily with what waspreached rather than what was written. Itinerant preachers of thisgospel were known as “evangelists,” which in Greek isclosely related to the term euangelion (Acts 21:8; Eph. 4:11; 2Tim.4:5). Some scholars believe that during the stage of oraltransmission, the gospel accounts developed a certain form throughrepetition, which helps explain some similarities between laterwritten accounts of the gospel.

FromOral to Written Gospel

Later,this “oral” gospel was written down, for several reasons.With the rapid spread of Christianity, as recorded in the book ofActs, a need arose for a more efficient dissemination of the messageof Jesus than was available by oral means. Furthermore, there was aneed to keep the message alive because some of the apostles had died(e.g., James in Acts 12:2) and many churches were facing oppositionand persecution. The written Gospels would facilitate catecheticaland liturgical needs and encourage persecuted Christians to continuefollowing Jesus by telling the story of his faithfulness throughgreat suffering. These written Gospels would also contain examples ofthose who persevered in following Jesus and of those who denied himand betrayed him. These accounts about Jesus and those who followedhim became foundational documents for the early church.

Itshould be noted that the gospel was not written down in order to giveit greater authority. The first-century context was largely an oralculture, in which storytelling and the rehearsal of facts wasintegral. Papias, a leader of the church in Hierapolis in Asia Minorwho died around AD 130, states his preference for oral traditionrather than written information about Jesus: “For I did notthink that information from books would help me as much as the wordof a living and surviving voice” (Eusebius, Hist. eccl.3.39.4). There is, however, a traceable trajectory from the gospelpreached by the apostles to the written accounts that bear the namesof Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. It is generally held that theauthors/editors of the four canonical Gospels were using oral and/orwritten sources (Luke 1:1–4), and that their respective Gospelswere written in the second half of the first century.

Themajority of biblical scholars hold that Mark was the first Gospel tobe written (c. AD 66). According to tradition, its editor/author wasJohn Mark, a close friend of the apostle Peter (1Pet. 5:13) anda part-time companion of the apostle Paul (Acts 12:12; Col. 4:10;2Tim. 4:11). This tradition is not without basis. Papias says,“Mark, who had indeed been Peter’s interpreter,accurately wrote as much as he remembered, yet not in order, aboutthat which was either said or done by the Lord” (Eusebius,Hist. eccl. 3.39.15). This tradition is also outlined by Clement ofAlexandria, who, around AD 200, wrote, “When Peter had publiclypreached the word at Rome, and by the Spirit had proclaimed thegospel, then those present, who were many, exhorted Mark, as one whohad followed him for a long time and remembered what had been spoken,to make a record of what he said; and that he did this, anddistributed the Gospel among those that asked him” (Eusebius,Hist. eccl. 6.14.5–7; cf. 2.15.1–2).

Itis widely held that Matthew and Luke used Mark as one of theirsources: of the material in Mark, over 97percent is repeated inMatthew and over 88percent in Luke. Matthew and Luke alsocontain material that appears to come from a common written sourcethat is not found in Mark. Scholars have named this source as “Q”(from the German Quelle= “source”), although thismay be a collection of sources rather than a single document.

Furthermore,the association of the Fourth Gospel with the apostle John goes backto Irenaeus (c. AD 180), who states, “John, the disciple of theLord, who leaned on his breast, also published the gospel whileliving at Ephesus in Asia” (Haer. 3.1.1, as cited in Eusebius,Hist. eccl. 5.8.4). By the second century, the term “gospel”is used for the written accounts of the life, death, and resurrectionof Jesus (e.g., Did. 11.3; 15.4). Justin Martyr (c. AD 140) refers tothe “memoirs of the apostles” (1Apol. 67) andIrenaeus (c. AD 180) mentions the four canonical Gospels by name(Haer. 3.11.7).

ThePurpose and Genre of the Gospels

Purpose.The Gospels were written to convey theology and to create and confirmfaith. They do not give an objectively neutral account of the life ofJesus; they enthusiastically endorse their protagonist and condemnthose who oppose him. They differ from traditional biographies inthat they give little information about the chronology of Jesus’life. Only two of the Gospels, Matthew and Luke, tell of the eventssurrounding Jesus’ birth. Luke alone tells of an event inJesus’ childhood (Luke 2:41–52). It is virtuallyincidental that Jesus worked as a carpenter and had brothers andsisters (Mark 6:3). A large percentage of each of the four canonicalGospels is devoted to the last week of Jesus’ life; of thesixteen chapters of Mark’s Gospel, six are devoted to the oneweek from Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem until his resurrection.

Theprimary intentions of the authors/editors of the written Gospels werenot to give biographical details but rather to lead the reader to anacknowledgment of the identity of Jesus and a belief in the purposeof his mission (Luke 1:4; John 20:31). Their theological purposes,however, do not necessarily compromise their commitment to historicalaccuracy. Jesus is presented as a real, historical figure who livedwithin a specific historical time frame. Luke appears to be moreconcerned than the other evangelists with historical details, givinga rough date for Jesus’ birth (Luke 2:1–2) and a morespecific time for Jesus’ baptism (3:1–2).

Genre.The discerning reader of the Gospels is forced to ask questionsconcerning the literary genre(s) of these texts. Such a discussion isimperative, as the interpretation of a section of any piece ofliterature will largely be determined by the function of the textwithin a certain literary genre. Prior to the 1970s, most NT scholarsbelieved that the Gospels formed a unique literary genre and weretherefore distinct from other first-century literary forms. Thisconclusion was based on the belief that the written Gospels werecollections of smaller sections sewn together by the evangelists, andthat the documents as a whole lacked coherence. Since then, thispresupposition has been challenged, largely because scholars haveseen that the Gospel writers were real editors and authors who werenot just collecting primitive source material but were using thatmaterial to write a larger story about Jesus. The written Gospelstherefore have overall coherence and purpose; they were written insuch a way as to bring about a desired response in the reader. Suchan overall intention may have stronger similarities with differentgenres in the Greco-Roman world of theNT.

TheGospels have been associated with several genres. They bear someresemblance to aretalogies, which were narratives about divinepersons in antiquity from which flowed moral instructions. Thesestories often involved miraculous events at the subject’s birthor death or during life, and they included the presence of bothdisciples and opponents. Within these aretalogies, the narrative wassecondary to the morality. An association with aretalogies,therefore, would encourage the reader to give greater attention tomoral teaching than to events in which this teaching is embedded.Similarly, others have seen the Gospels as essentially a collectionof wisdom sayings set in a historicized narrative; this view againgives priority to sayings and is doubtful of the historicity of thenarrative. Such views that downplay the narrative, and particularlythe miracles in Jesus’ life, have led others to argue theopposite extreme, which sees the Gospels, and Luke-Acts inparticular, as examples of ancient novels, with their focus onmiracle stories. Many scholars have rejected the emphasis on eithersayings or narrative, arguing that the literary genre that theGospels most closely resemble is ancient biographies (bioi). Thesecontained praise for the protagonist, rhetoric, moral philosophy, anda concern for character.

Althoughthe Gospels use different literary motifs that are reflective ofdifferent genres of the Greco-Roman world, they do not exactlyreplicate a known genre. They contain material not found in otherHellenistic literature of the time—for example, the fulfillmentof OT expectations and their desire to address particular issuesfaced by the early church, such as opposition; the Gentile mission;the need to redefine Israel in the light of Jesus’ life, death,and resurrection; and the nature of Christian discipleship. Unlikeother literature of the time, they do not name their authors, andwith the exception of Luke, they lack traditional literary devicessuch as prefaces. They are therefore to be seen as unique, or atleast as a distinct subgenre of ancient biographies.

Canonicaland Noncanonical Gospels

Theprogression from the events of Jesus’ life to the oralpreaching of this gospel to the first-century writing of the storyled to the acceptance of the Gospels according to Matthew, Mark,Luke, and John into the NT canon. There is also a significant body ofliterature that is normally referred to as the noncanonical gospels.These later documents were neither widely accepted nor viewed asauthoritative, but they provide useful insights into the nature ofearly Christianity. A significant noncanonical gospel is the Gospelof Thomas, which is part of a large collection of works discovered atNag Hammadi (Egypt) in 1945. The Gospel of Thomas does not contain aresurrection account and is primarily a collection of sayings.

Thecanonical Gospels are not more authoritative than other sections ofScripture, but because they focus on Jesus’ ministry, withparticular attention to his death and resurrection, they draw theattention of the reader to the fulfillment of God’s purpose inthe life and work of Jesus, the Messiah. They are therefore of greatimportance within Scripture.

Also known as kherem warfare or Yahweh war. The term “holywar,” though never used in the Bible, characterizes well thewars that Israel fought at God’s command, particularly thosewithin the Promised Land. God is present with Israel in war, and thusthe battlefield becomes holy ground. God gives Israel instructionsconcerning the waging of war in Deut. 7, 20. From these passages,plus the historical accounts of Israel’s wars, we can describeholy war as follows.

Beforethe Battle

Godtells Israel when to go to war. Israel’s leaders cannot engagein battle without first hearing from God. God reveals himself toJoshua, for instance, before the battle of Jericho to give himinstructions (Josh. 5:13–15). David inquires of God through thepriest Abiathar, who presumably uses oracular devices to discoverGod’s will (1Sam. 23:1–6). Joshua makes a seriouserror in not seeking God’s will in the matter of the Gibeonites(Josh. 9:14).

Oncethe Israelites learn that God wants them to go to battle, they mustspiritually prepare themselves. Since God makes his presence known onthe battlefield, the troops must be in a state of ritual puritycomparable to those who visit the sanctuary. Before the conquest, forinstance, it is necessary for the fighting men to undergocircumcision and to observe the Passover (Josh. 5:2–12).Prebattle sacrifices are also required (1Sam.13).

Duringthe Battle

TheArk of the Covenant plays a central role in holy war, carried bypriests and accompanying the army. The ark is a powerful symbol ofGod’s presence and indicates to the army that God fights forthem. The march into battle takes the form of a religious procession.The priests carrying the ark go first, while singers praise God(2Chron. 20:20–21). The long march in the wilderness hasthe character of such a march into battle, since Moses begins theday’s journey by shouting, “Rise up, Lord! May yourenemies be scattered; may your foes flee before you” (Num.10:35). Then the ark carried by priests leads the way.

SinceGod is present with the army, the number of troops and the quality oftheir weapons are unimportant. Indeed, on occasion when Israel has anample supply of troops, God commands that the war leader reduce theirnumber, as in the famous story of Gideon paring down his troops fromthirty-two thousand to three hundred. The purpose of this reductionis to demonstrate to the people with certainty that they win thebattle only because of God’s strength. The inexperienced David,armed with a slingshot, expresses this sentiment to the mercenarygiant Goliath before he kills him: “You come against me withsword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name ofthe Lord Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you havedefied.... All those gathered here will know thatit is not by sword or spear that the Lord saves; for the battle isthe Lord’s, and he will give all of you into our hands”(1Sam. 17:45, 47). Although the Israelites must engage theenemy, they know for certain that it is God who provides the victory.

Afterthe Battle

SinceGod wins the battle for Israel, the proper response is praise. The OTcontains many songs that celebrate victory in warfare (Exod. 15;Judg. 5; Pss. 24; 98; 149).

Thetreatment of the plunder and prisoners of war depends on whether thebattle takes place in the promised land. If the battle takes placeoutside the land, then, while the men are killed, the women andchildren are spared. If the battle takes place in the land, thenkherem goes into effect. The Hebrew word kherem is difficult totranslate (possibilities include “complete destruction,”“things under the ban,” “things devoted to theLord”), but it is clear that it means that all the plunder goesto God (the sanctuary treasury) and that all the people (men, women,and children), and sometimes all the animals, are killed. The purposeof this is to keep the inhabitants of the land from influencingIsrael to worship other gods. Also, God uses Israel as an instrumentof his judgment against these sinful nations.

Warfareagainst Israel

Whilemost divinely ordained warfare was directed toward Israel’senemies, God also used foreign nations to judge his sinful people.The initial defeat at Ai (Josh. 7), the capture of the ark by thePhilistines at the time of Eli (1Sam. 4), and the destructionof Jerusalem and the temple by the Babylonians (Lam. 2) are examples.

NewTestament Holy War

Theprophets who ministered during the exilic and postexilic periodsannounced that God would appear again in the future. The people ofIsrael were living under the oppressive hand of Babylon and thenPersia, but they were comforted by the idea that God would come andsave them from their enemies (Dan. 7; Zech. 14; Mal.4).

Whenthe NT opens, John the Baptist proclaims that the time of judgmentannounced by these prophets has come (Matt. 3:7–12). After hebaptizes Jesus, he is put in prison and hears reports of Jesus’ministry that disturb him. He wonders why Jesus is not bringingviolent judgment against the enemies of God (Matt. 11:1–15).But Jesus has heightened and intensified the warfare so that it isdirected against the “powers and principalities,” andthis battle is won with spiritual weapons (2Cor. 10:3–6;Eph. 6:10–20). Indeed, the ultimate victory is achieved not bykilling but by dying. Paul describes the crucifixion and ascensionusing warfare language in Eph. 4:7–10; Col. 2:13–15.

John,however, was not wrong. The book of Revelation is the fulleststatement of Christ’s return, which will signal the final war.In this war, all evil, both spiritual and human, will be brought toan end (Rev. 19:11–21).

At creation, God made human beings to depend on him to revealhis purposes, so that their response to life would always involvetrust in, and loving obedience to, his counsel. The entrance of sincreated a barrier between people and God. Fallen humanity, in itsautonomy, seeks to understand the world apart from knowledge of God(1Cor. 2:14).

InScripture, ignorance frequently refers to one’s inability tounderstand who God is or one’s true identity and purpose (Eph.4:18). In ignorance, humanity disregards God’s revelation (Rom.1:22–25). The darkened, idolatrous heart is the source of humanblindness (Jer. 17:9; Ezek. 14:2–3). Satan holds people captivein blindness (2Cor. 4:4). God revealed himself throughprophetic messengers, but throughout the OT, God’s peopledisregarded their message. Although God raised up judges to lead hispeople, they repeatedly reverted to idolatry: “In those daysIsrael had no king; everyone did as they saw fit” (Judg.21:25).

Jesusis the true light, which gives light to every person (John 1:9). Yetpeople loved darkness and would not come into the light for fear thattheir deeds would be exposed (John 3:20). However, through the Word,the Spirit can transform the hearts of people such as Paul, whoformerly opposed Christ and his church in ignorance and unbelief(1Tim. 1:13).

Ignorance,however, does not always entail sin. Our finitude implies that ourknowledge will always be limited. God has appointed teachers tofacilitate our growth in understanding (Eph. 4:11–12).

The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).

Heavenand Earth

Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.

Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.

TheTheology of Land

Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).

Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).

Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.

Inheritance

Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).

Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.

Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).

Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).

Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).

Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).

Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).

Rising above the ordinary routine of church life, Paul pens amajestic letter calling Christians to remember what God has done forthem in Christ and to walk worthy of their calling. Ephesians standsas an extremely significant and intensely practical book for today’schurch.

Authorship

Paulclaims to be the author of Ephesians (1:1–2; 3:1), and itsauthenticity is well attested in the early church. A good portion ofEphesians is presented in the first person (1:15–18; 3:1–3,7–8, 13–17; 4:1, 17; 5:32; 6:19–22), includinginformation related to his prayers, apostolic ministry, and commentsabout Tychicus, the letter carrier. In addition, Ephesians seems tohave been quoted by many of the Apostolic Fathers and is included inearly lists of the NT. Since the end of the eighteenth century,however, some have doubted the Pauline authorship of Ephesians forthe following reasons (accompanied by counterarguments).

1.Theauthor does not seem to know his audience personally (1:15; 3:2). The“impersonal nature” of the letter makes better sense,however, if it was intended for a wider audience (see “Destination”below).

2.Thelanguage and style of Ephesians do not match Paul’s otherletters (i.e., unique words and phrases, cumbersome sentences). Yetthere are more unique words in Galatians and Philippians, for theirlength, than in Ephesians. Paul’s style in this letter isundoubtedly more reflective, and he may also have used a trustedsecretary (amanuensis), which could account for much of the unusualwording.

3.Themany parallels between Ephesians and Colossians suggest that someoneother than Paul wrote Ephesians as an imitation of Colossians. Yetparallels are to be expected between two letters sent to the samearea at the same time when one deals with a doctrinal error(Colossians) and the other aims to prevent the error from spreadingby reflecting on the deep truths of the faith (Ephesians).

4.Thetheology of Ephesians differs from his undisputed letters (e.g.,emphasizing the universal church and deemphasizing justification byfaith and the return of Christ). However, the overall purpose of theletter and the lack of an impending church crisis make these emphasesfully understandable.

Whilethese four arguments against Pauline authorship are to be takenseriously, the traditional view that Paul wrote Ephesians remains thepreferred option. The explicit statements within the text, theunanimous support of the early church, the likely use of a secretary,the absence of a looming crisis, and the overall purpose of theletter offer good reasons to suppose that Paul wrote Ephesians.

Placeof Origin and Date

Ephesianswas written while Paul was a prisoner (see Eph. 3:1; 4:1; 6:20), buthe had been imprisoned on more than one occasion. The traditionalview locates Paul in Rome under house arrest when he pens the letter(along with the other Prison Epistles: Colossians, Philemon, andPhilippians). Since Tychicus delivered Ephesians, Colossians, andlikely Philemon, all three letters must have been written from thesame place (Eph. 6:21–22; Col. 4:7–9). Acts 28:30–31reports that Paul was held captive in Rome for two years, but heretained limited freedom to meet with people and to minister (Eph.6:19–20; Phil. 1:12–13; Col. 4:3–4). Luke’suse of “we” in Acts 28 indicates that he was with Paul inRome during that imprisonment (see also Col. 4:14; Philem. 24). Also,Aristarchus, who traveled with Paul to Rome (Acts 27:2), is mentionedin two Prison Epistles (Col. 4:10; Philem.24).

Thetwo leading alternatives to Rome for the place of origin are Ephesusitself and Caesarea. Because of Paul’s comment about fightingwild beasts in Ephesus (1Cor. 15:32; cf. 2Cor. 1:8–11),some have suggested that Paul was imprisoned there, but there is noclear evidence to support that theory. On the other hand, Acts doesrefer to a lengthy imprisonment for Paul in Caesarea (Acts 24:27).When Paul writes to Philemon, he requests a guest room for anupcoming visit (Philem. 22). In Caesarea, however, Paul had appealedto Caesar and expected a trip to Rome rather than release from prison(Acts 25:10–11). Overall, the traditional view that Paul wroteEphesians from Rome has more support than the alternative views.

Ifthe place of origin is Rome, then Paul wrote Ephesians during hisfirst Roman imprisonment, around AD 60–62. Most likely, Paulwrote Ephesians about the same time he wrote Colossians and Philemon,in the early or middle part of that imprisonment.

Destination

AlthoughEphesians traditionally has been connected to the city of Ephesus,the words “in Ephesus” (1:1) are absent from some of theearliest and best Greek manuscripts. The letter itself even suggeststhat Paul may have been writing for a wider audience. In spite ofliving in Ephesus for several years, Paul mentions no church membersby name (6:21–24), and he makes the awkward comments that hehas “heard about” their faith and love (1:15) and assumesthey have “heard about” how God has used him (3:2; cf.4:21). Almost certainly Paul intended this general letter tocirculate among several churches in Asia Minor, with each church“filling in the blank” as the letter was read publicly.Since Ephesus was the leading city, the letter became associated morepermanently with Ephesus at an early stage. It is also possible thatEphesians is the “letter from Laodicea” mentioned in Col.4:16, assuming that Tychicus first delivered the letter to Ephesus,with instructions to send it on to Laodicea and Colossae.

Purpose

Pauldid not write Ephesians to solve a major problem or deal with anyparticular emergency in the church. Instead, he wrote a broadlyreflective letter to help Christians remain strong in their faith. Hehad spent almost three years teaching and caring for some of thesepeople, and he wanted to make sure that they continued to followJesus. Specifically, Paul wanted believers to have a deeperunderstanding and experience of three realities: (1)the newlife in Christ; (2)the new community in Christ; (3)thenew walk to which Christ called them.

Paulfocuses on the new life experienced in Jesus Christ. The expression“in Christ” and parallel phrases such as “in theLord” or “in him” are found almost forty times inEphesians. God will unite and restore all of creation under one Lord,Jesus Christ (1:10). Paul also stresses the new community throughwords such as “unity,” “one,” and“with/together with” and concepts such as church, body,temple, and bride. When we are connected to Christ, we are alsoconnected to a new community. This new community is called to a newwalk that honors Christ, one characterized by love for God and forpeople.

Outlineand Contents

I.Letter Opening (1:1–2)

II.Praise for Spiritual Blessings in Christ (1:3–14)

III.Prayer for Spiritual Understanding (1:15–23)

IV.New Life in Christ (2:1–10)

V.New Community in Christ (2:11–22)

VI.Paul’s Unique Role in God’s Plan (3:1–13)

VII.Paul’s Prayer for the New Community (3:14–21)

VIII.New Walk in Christ (4:1–6:20)

A.Walk in unity (4:1–16)

B.Walk in holiness (4:17–32)

C.Walk in love (5:1–6)

D.Walk in light (5:7–14)

E.Walk carefully (5:15–6:9)

F.Walk in the Lord’s strength (6:10–20)

IX.Letter Closing (6:21–24)

I.Letter opening (1:1–2).The letter opens in typical fashion by naming the author and theaudience before adding a greeting. Paul, an “apostle of ChristJesus by the will of God,” writes to God’s people inEphesus (and surrounding cities). He greets his readers with “graceand peace,” themes that appear throughout the letter.

II.Praise for spiritual blessings in Christ (1:3–14).Ephesians explodes in adoration and praise: “Praise be to [or‘blessed be’] the God ... who has blessed us... with every spiritual blessing in Christ.” God’speople praise him for their election (1:4–6), for theirredemption and wisdom to understand God’s master plan (1:7–12),and for sealing them with the Holy Spirit (1:13–14). Eachsection ends with a similar phrase, “to the praise of hisglory” (1:6, 12, 14), showing that the triune God in hisessential character (his glory) is worthy of highest praise.

III.Prayer for spiritual understanding (1:15–23).After praising God for his blessings, Paul now asks for spiritualwisdom that his audience might comprehend those blessings (asdescribed in both the previous section and the rest of the letter).As the Spirit enlightens their hearts, they come to know the hope ofGod’s calling, the glory of God’s inheritance, and thegreatness of God’s power (1:18–19), which was supremelydisplayed in Jesus Christ’s resurrection and exaltation(1:20–23).

IV.New life in Christ (2:1–10).Paul now turns his attention to the new life available in Christ(2:1–10). First, he offers a lengthy description of a person’sspiritual state without Christ (2:1–3). Second, he explains howGod came to the rescue of such helpless and hopeless people. Moved byhis love and mercy, God has mysteriously allowed believers toparticipate in Christ’s death, resurrection, and exaltation(2:4–6). God’s purpose in saving people was todemonstrate the “riches of his grace” expressed to us inJesus (2:7). There is perhaps no better summary of this salvationmessage than 2:8–10: the basis of salvation is God’sgrace, the means of receiving salvation is faith, and the result ofsalvation is good works.

V.New community in Christ (2:11–22).God not only has given new life to individuals in Christ but also hascreated a new community, comprised of both Jews and Gentiles. AsGentiles, the Ephesians’ condition outside of Christ wasdesperate: no Messiah, no connection to God’s people, nopromise of salvation, no hope, and no relationship with God(2:11–12). But now they have been brought near through Christ’ssacrifice on the cross (2:13). In Christ, Jews and Gentiles have nowbeen reconciled to each other in a new spiritual community (2:14–18).They are full-fledged members of God’s kingdom and God’sfamily. What is more, they are even part of God’s holy temple(2:19–22).

VI.Paul’s unique role in God’s plan (3:1–13).After describing God’s strategy to unite Jewish and Gentilebelievers in Christ, Paul begins to pray for these believers (3:1).Almost immediately, however, he breaks off his prayer to explain moreabout God’s “secret plan” or “mystery”and his own role in that plan. Only the grace and power of God couldtransform a persecutor of the church into one of the church’sgreat leaders (3:2–9). Now God is using his multiculturalchurch to announce his manifold wisdom to the heavenly powers(3:10–11). Since God is using Paul to fulfill his purpose, noone should be discouraged by Paul’s sufferings (3:12–13).

VII.Paul’s prayer for the new community (3:14–21).Paul now resumes his prayer (3:1) and asks that God may strengthenbelievers by the Holy Spirit in their inner being according to hisglorious riches (3:16). They will know the prayer has been answeredwhen Christ feels at home in their hearts and they experience hisindescribable love more and more. The final purpose of the prayer isthat they be filled with the “fullness of God” or becomelike Christ (3:17–19; cf. 4:13). Although it may appear thatPaul has asked for too much, the doxology in 3:20–21 affirmsthat God is able to do more than can be imagined.

VIII.New walk in Christ (4:1–6:20).God’s gift of new life and his creation of a new community inChrist (chaps. 1–3) call for a new walk (chaps. 4–6). Theimportant Greek word oun (“then, therefore”) in 4:1 marksa transition from the blessings and privileges of the church (chaps.1–3) to the conduct and responsibilities of the church (chaps.4–6). Obedience comes as a response to God’s grace.

A.Walk in unity (4:1–16).Believers are urged to live a life (or walk) worthy of their calling(4:1), and this worthy walk begins by maintaining the unity of theSpirit (4:3). The triune God perfectly exemplifies a diverse unity(4:4–6), and Paul suggests in 4:7–13 that diversitywithin the body of Christ actually enriches unity. All members aregifted, but they are gifted in different ways so as to benefit thebody. The goal of unity is full maturity in Christ, resulting indiscernment, truth, edification, and love (4:14–16).

B.Walk in holiness (4:17–32).Paul reminds his audience that rather than living like pagans(4:17–19), they have put off the old self (former life apartfrom Christ) and have put on “the new self, created to be likeGod in true righteousness and holiness” (4:20–24). Nowthey are called to live like the new people that they are in Christ.Paul offers a list of specific exhortations in 4:25–32 toillustrate what it means to walk in holiness.

C.Walk in love (5:1–6).Along with walking in unity and holiness, believers are called towalk in love. Positively, this means imitating the Father and lovingsacrificially like the Son (5:1–2). Negatively, this meansrefusing to indulge in selfish sensuality (5:3–6). Paul closesthis section by warning that immoral, impure, greedy, idolatrouspeople will inherit God’s wrath rather than God’skingdom.

D.Walk in light (5:7–14). Althoughbelievers once lived in darkness, they are now light in the Lord andshould walk as children of light (5:7–9). They need to discernwhat pleases the Lord and reject the useless deeds of darkness(5:10–11a). Instead, they are to expose and transform thedarkness (5:11b–14).

E.Walk carefully (5:15–6:9).Paul, using three contrasts, cautions believers to walk carefully:not as unwise, but as wise (5:15); not as foolish, but withunderstanding (5:17); and not getting drunk, but being filled withthe Spirit (5:18). Paul then specifies three results of being filledwith the Spirit: worship, gratitude, and mutual submission (5:19–21).In 5:22–6:9 Paul explains how this final characteristic (mutualsubmission) is applied within the Christian household.

F.Walk in the Lord’s strength (6:10–20).Paul concludes with instructions about walking in the Lord’sstrength. Christ has already won the victory over the powers of evil,but believers should expect continued attacks. Their task is to standfirm, using God’s armor of truth, righteousness, the gospel ofpeace, faith, salvation, and the word of God. Prayer is required toappropriate the armor of God. Paul began the letter by praying forhis readers (1:15–23); now he asks them to pray that he willfearlessly declare the mystery of the gospel.

IX.Letter closing (6:21–24).Paul concludes with a commendation of Tychicus, the letter carrier,and a benediction of peace, love, and grace.

Patience is a moral attribute that God possesses and thathumans may possess. One who has patience allows time to pass whilemaintaining a positive disposition, often in the face of suffering(Hab. 3:16; 2Tim. 3:10–11; James 5:10), as the KJVtranslation “longsuffering” implies (cf. Prov. 14:29NASB: “slow to anger”). The Scriptures universally speakof patience as an admirable quality and associate patience with othervirtues, such as inner peace (Ps. 37:7), wisdom (Prov. 19:11),persuasiveness (Prov. 25:15), humility (Eccles. 7:8), and kindness(Rom. 2:4; 1Cor. 13:4).

Numerouspassages praise God’s patience. Humans try (Isa. 7:13) and showcontempt for (Rom. 2:4) God’s patience, sometimes by refusingto be patient with others even though they themselves have receivedmercy from God (Matt. 18:23–35). Nonetheless, God displays hispatience by granting them eternal life through faith in Christ(1Tim. 1:16). In fact, God has patiently delayed destroying theworld because he is compassionate and wants all to come to repentance(2Pet. 3:9). God’s patience is evident even toward thosewho are destined for destruction (Rom. 9:22; 1Pet. 3:20).

Justas God is patient, he imparts patience to the Christian through hisHoly Spirit (Gal. 5:22). Like Abraham, the prophets, and any farmer,Christians are to exhibit patience, bearing with people both insideand outside the church (Eph. 4:2; 1Thess. 5:14–15) asthey wait eagerly for Christ’s return (Heb. 6:12–15;James 5:7–10). Those in Christian leadership must modelpatience and encourage others with patience (2Tim. 3:10; 4:2).

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

The word “mission” was coined by the Jesuits inthe sixteenth century to refer to the sending of the Godhead into theworld, reflecting a particular trinitarian formulation. The Jesuitsused the term “mission” to describe the Father, who sendsthe Son, who sends the Holy Spirit, who sends the church into theworld as an agent of redemption and reconciliation. Simply put, theJesuits conceived of missionas sending. That biblical term “send” (e.g., Gk.apostellō) described the fundamental nature of the church asbeing sent by God into the world with a specific purpose, animated bythe Holy Spirit to accomplish*ts task given by God, as a sign and instrument of God’skingdom. Initially, the Jesuits employed the term in the context ofboth the conversion of heathens (those who failed to recognize theGod of the Bible) and the reconversion of Protestants to RomanCatholicism.

Thebiblical notion of mission affirms that God is a sending God (Lat.,missio Dei), who loves the world so much that he sent his Son intothe world to redeem it (e.g., John 3:16), and whose Son then sendsthe Holy Spirit as the Counselor (Gk.paraklētos [e.g., John 16:5–7]) and guide so that thechurch can fulfill its purpose. Mission (sending), therefore,expresses both the heart of God and the nature of the church in theworld.

TheRole of Language and Culture

Functionally,mission is the sharing of the good news of Jesus Christ in word anddeed across cultural and linguistic boundaries, without granting anyparticular language or culture a superior position in the divineeconomy. The Bible tells the story of God’s mission in offeringhuman beings a covenantal relationship with himself. South Africanmission scholar David Bosch suggests that the missionary in the OT isGod himself, whereas the NT presents several significantmissionaries, with Jesus and his disciples being the mostillustrative examples. Indeed, it can be said that the NT is itself amission document, since it was written by people actively involved inmission (e.g., Paul, Luke). Biblically, the Christian mission impliesa certain perspective on language and culture whereby all languagesand cultures are relativized in the light of Christ, with no languageor culture having privileged access to God, for God communicatesthrough every particular language and culture. Thus, for instance,Koreans, Zulus, Cambodians, Quechuas, and Swedes have the same accessto God through their own language and culture, and none of them arerequired to adopt another language or culture, such as Hebrew, Greek,or English, in order to know and worship God.

Theimportance of the parity of languages and cultures worldwide asvehicles of the gospel is exemplified biblically in the account ofthe Jerusalem council, where the apostle Paul confronted JewishChristians who would have made Torah and circumcision the litmus testof authentic faith in Jesus Christ (Acts 15). Paul argued vigorouslyagainst those who sought to require new Christians to adopt Jewishceremonial practices of the OT in order to join the body of Christ.The relativization of language and culture is so crucial to Christianmission that Scripture records Paul rebuking Peter for seeking tomake Gentile Christians follow Jewish customs (Gal. 2:14). Requiringfollowers of Christ to adopt Jewish (or other) ceremonial traditions(e.g., circumcision) would render the grace of Christ useless, makinga mockery of the cross (Gal. 2:21), since Christ liberates humanbeings within their own language and culture. Simply put, people wereto become followers of Jesus Christ on the basis of their ownlanguage and culture (Greek or otherwise) rather than according toany other tradition. According to the biblical account, no languageor culture is too profane to communicate the good news of JesusChrist.

Missionas Sending

Biblically,sending implies a sender, the one sent, and a message. The sender isthe agent who initiates the deliverance of the message. The one senthas been given the authority to deliver in word and deed the messageof the sender. The message refers to the content in word and deedthat is shared by the agent (e.g., missionary) of the sender. Theauthority of the sender is invested in the messenger, so much so thatthe messenger (e.g., the missionary) represents the sender directly.More broadly, the biblical term “sending” appears in bothTestaments, and it occurs in mundane contexts that are not concernedwith God’s mission (missio Dei) as well as in texts that areexplicitly mission related. In the OT, the Hebrew term shalakh, whichoccurs in various forms over eight hundred times, refers to sendingthe intentions of an authority figure, often a king, judge, or otherperson of high status. An example would be God, as a demonstration ofhis authority, sending Adam out of the garden (Gen. 3:23). The act ofsending expresses the intention of the sender. The mission of God aspresented in the OT is communicated clearly in Gen. 12:1–3 (inwhat is known as the Abrahamic covenant), where God tells Abram toleave his country, guided by God, in order to be a blessing to theentire world. Following Israel’s continual disobedience, Godpromises to send them a savior (Isa. 19:20), a statement thatChristians interpret as foreshadowing the birth and ministry of JesusChrist.

Inthe NT, the Greek terms for “send,” and their variations,occur over two hundred times, appearing in texts such as “I amsending you out like sheep among wolves” (Matt. 10:16); “Asthe Father has sent me, I am sending you” (John 20:21); and“Jesus sent two of his disciples” (Mark 11:1). Peopleoften assume that there is one Great Commission text, Matt. 28:18–20,which summarizes the biblical warrant for mission. However, there areseveral “great commissions” in the Gospels, which mightbe better understood as “last commissions.” Each Gospelwriter records his own version of the last commission, reflecting histheological purposes within the particular contexts out of which hewrites his account. The last commissions appear in Matt. 28:16–20;Mark 16:14–20; Luke 24:44–47; John 20:19–23.

Themost responsible interpretive strategy with regard to these passagesis to read them within the larger context of each Gospel narrativerather than as individual texts (i.e., proof texts) disconnected fromtheir wider context. That is to say, a faithful theology of missionin part entails letting the text interpret itself through study ofthe entire Gospel account. Otherwise, one may fail to understand thebiblical notion of mission in its entirety. For instance, Luke 24:47announces that “repentance for the forgiveness of sins will bepreached in his [Christ’s] name to all nations, beginning atJerusalem,” which emphasizes the need for confession,forgiveness, and redemption (vertical aspects of mission). Yet onecould misinterpret Luke’s Gospel were one to understand missionsolely through the words of Luke 24:44–47, the vertical(spiritual) aspect, while overlooking Luke 4:16–30, verses thatannounce Jesus’ mission to liberate captives and give sight tothe blind, reflecting the horizontal (social) nature of mission. InLuke’s Gospel, mission is characterized as equally vertical(i.e., calling for repentance and forgiveness) and horizontal (i.e.,seeking sociopolitical justice). According to Luke’s Gospel,then, both vertical and horizontal aspects must be present inmission.

Missionand Missions

Itis worthwhile to note the difference between the terms “mission”(sg.) and “missions” (pl.). Whereas “mission”refers to the singular act of God, who sends his Son, who sends theHoly Spirit into the world, “missions” refers to thespecific agencies and organizations in history and currently thathave sought to carry out that mission of God. There is only onemission (missio Dei), with several missions aiming to accomplish thatsingular mission through time and space. Generally, missions aredivided into denominational and faith missions. Denominationalmissions, such as those of Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist,Lutheran, or Presbyterian churches, send out missionaries financiallysupported by the denomination. Faith missions, such as Wycliffe BibleTranslators, Operation Mobilization, or SIM (Serving in Mission,formally Sudan Interior Mission), require that missionaries serve inmission by faith, either by going where they are called by Godwithout having prior financial support or by raising financialsupport from friends and churches prior to leaving for their intendedregion of service.

Conclusion

Finally,there are two important lessons from the biblical account of mission.First, Paul and the other disciples, while seeking to communicate thegospel of good news to particular people, sought to maintain theunity of the churches in the face of their diverse cultural andlinguistic makeup (e.g., Eph. 4:4–7). This means that abiblical perspective on mission sees culture and language as channelsrather than obstacles to the communication of the gospel. Second,Paul and the disciples never started missions but rather establishedchurches. Since mission implies movement across cultural andlinguistic frontiers, the earlier followers of Christ were on themove, with the conviction that the Holy Spirit would guide, direct,and protect them until Christ returned.

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

These church offices are God-given positions of leadershipwithin the early church designed to give it structure and direction.Some of these positions have ongoing application for today; othersare important primarily for understanding the historical developmentof the church.

Adefinite structure for church leadership is God’s idea. Eventhough the equality of all believers is a biblical principle (thepriesthood of all believers in 1Pet. 2:5, 9), God has alsochosen to give certain spiritual gifts of leadership (Rom. 12:8) oradministration (1Cor. 12:28) to a limited number within thechurch, not universally to everyone. Paul asks a series of rhetoricalquestions in 1Cor. 12:29, “Are all apostles? Are allprophets? Are all teachers? Do all work miracles?” where theexpected answer in each case clearly is “No, not everyone hasevery gift.” Believers are also specifically instructed to“obey your leaders and submit to them” (Heb. 13:17 ESV,NRSV, NASB) and to respect those “who care for you in the Lordand who admonish you” (1Thess. 5:12). God’s plan isclearly that there be specific leaders. At the same time, the NT doesnot always answer all our questions or spell out every detail in thisarea of church leadership. The more significant offices in the NTchurch include the following:

Apostle.Apostles formed the earliest and most important leadership structure.Jesus, early in his ministry, “called his disciples to him andchose twelve of them, whom he also designated apostles” (Luke6:13).The word “disciple” (mathētēs) means “student”or “learner” and indicates the role of these originaltwelve during Jesus’ earthly ministry. Following Jesus’death and resurrection, these same individuals(now minus Judas Iscariot) were typically called “apostles”(apostolos [lit., “sent-out one”), who were thenentrusted with Christ’s power and authority as his officialrepresentatives. Paul describes the foundational role of this officein Eph. 2:20. Their power and authority were without parallel in thehistorical development of the church. Some other observations roundout our understanding of this office. First, there are occasional(but limited) references to broader circles of apostles in the senseof other people being “sent out” by God for specificministry. Thus, Barnabas is apparently described as an apostlealongside Paul (Acts 14:14), and James the brother of Jesus isdescribed as an apostle (Gal. 1:19). However, Acts 1:21–22spells out the usual qualifications for an apostle: “men whohave been with us the whole time the Lord Jesus was living among us,beginning from John’s baptism to the time when Jesus was takenup from us.” Thus, the apostleship, especially understood inthe strict sense, is limited to original eyewitnesses from among thefirst generation of believers, and this office has not continued.

Prophet.The office of prophet (prophētēs) is another foundationalone at the time of the establishment of the church (Eph. 2:20).Agabus is described as a prophet (Acts 21:10), and Paul assumesthat there were prophets in the church in Corinth (1Cor.12:29). Although this is a controversial topic, many believe thatthis office no longer continues today.

Elder/presbyter.The office of elder or presbyter (presbyteros) is one of the mostcommon in the church. This office is based on the model of elders inthe Jewish synagogue. Paul and Bar-na-bas appointed elders in everychurch as early as their first missionary journey (Acts 14:23). Jamesinstructs the sick to call on the elders of the church to pray overthem (James 5:14). The best job description for elders is 1Tim.5:17, where there are two major emphases: first, directing theaffairs of the church, and second, preaching and teaching. Eldersapparently always functioned in a plurality in Scripture, never assolo leaders.

Overseer/bishop.The office of overseer or bishop (episkopos) is mentioned in Phil.1:1 as well as in 1Tim. 3:2; Titus 1:7 in the lists ofqualifications. Although by the second or third century the office ofoverseer/bishop had evolved into a singular office of one overseerpresiding over a number of elders, this was not true in the NT, wherethese two titles apparently were different names for the same office.Several passages indicate this relationship. In Acts 20:17 Paul callsspecifically for the “elders” of the church, yet in Acts20:28 he refers to them as “overseers.” In similarfashion, in Titus 1:5–9 Paul tells Titus to “appointelders in every town” but then apparently goes on to speak ofthem as “overseers.” Peter does the same thing in 1Pet.5:1–2, where he describes them first as “elders”and then as “overseers.” The key to understanding thisrelationship is to see that the term “elder” comes fromtheir Jewish heritage and reflects the qualifications for this office(someone who is older and more mature), whereas the term “overseer”comes from a Greek background and refers more to their jobdescription (they are to oversee and take responsibility forleadership).

Deacon.Deacons provide practical, hands-on ministry in the local church.Interestingly, the classic passage on this office, Acts 6:1–6,never uses the actualnoun “deacon” (diakonos). Instead, other forms of thisword are used: “to wait on tables” (diakoneō [v.2])and “the ministry [lit., ‘service’]of the word” (diakonia [v.4]). This word group is usedfrequently to refer to nonreligious service, such as Martha’smeal preparation (Luke 10:40) or in reference to a servant orattendant in one of Jesus’ parables (e.g., Matt. 22:13).Originally, the term “deacon” simply meant “servant.”In the development of the NT church, it gradually became a technicalterm used to refer to a specific office, such as in Paul’sgreeting in Phil. 1:1 and in the list of qualifications in 1Tim.3:8–13. The standard understanding of the deacons in the NTchurch structure is that they assisted the elders/overseers inpractical ways (probably on the model of the seven men in Acts 6).

Pastor.Pastors, surprisingly, show up only a single time in most Englishtranslations, in Eph.4:11, where Paul describes how Christ “gave ...pastors and teachers.” “Pastor” (poimēn) means“shepherd,” and although the noun appears in this senseof a church leader only here, the verb “to shepherd”(poimainō) occurs also in Acts 20:28; 1Pet. 5:2.This shepherding role is associated with the elders/overseers. We seethis in Paul’s address to the Ephesian elders in Acts 20, wherehe calls them “elders” (v.17) and “overseers”(v.28) and tells them how they are to “be shepherds ofthe church of God” (v.28). Peter does the same thing in1Pet. 5:1–2, where he calls them “elders”(v.1) and then calls them “overseers” and tellsthem to “be shepherds of God’s flock” (v.2).

Teacher.Teachersare mentioned among those with various spiritual gifts in 1Cor.12:28–29 and are connected with pastors in Eph. 4:11,apparently as a single combined office.

Evangelist.Evangelists are mentioned in the list of specially gifted individualsin Eph. 4:11, in relationship to Philip the evangelist in Acts 21:8,and as part of the job description for Timothy in 2Tim. 4:5(“do the work of an evangelist”).

The act of election and appointment to positions ofleadership and service within religious communities.

OldTestament.In the OT, parties receiving such appointment include kings and otherleaders of the people (1Sam. 9), the Aaronide priests (Exod.29), and the Levites (Num. 8).

Divineinitiative stands behind the choice of a king. God expresses favorfor a candidate through prophets (1Sam. 9:16; 1Kings11:30–38), who have a role in ceremonies expressive of suchappointment. An essential component of the procedure is theanointment of the appointee with oil (1Sam. 10:1; 1Kings19:16). A consequence of such election and installation is thereception of a spirit from God, leading, in one case, to acts ofprophecy (1Sam. 10:10–13).

Divineinitiative also stands behind the appointment of individuals (Moses[Exod. 3:7–22], Joshua [Num. 27:15–23], the variousjudges [Judg. 3:15; 6:11–24]) for the leadership of Israelapart from the office of kingship. In such cases within the OT, God’scommunication may come directly (in the case of Moses) or through theagency of another human (Moses communicates divine intent to Joshua)or an angelic being (Judg. 6:11–24). In the case of Joshua,Moses lays his hands upon him as an expression of divine election(Num. 27:22); the action recognizes that a spirit from God has comeupon Joshua (27:18).

Mosesofficiates at the ordination of the first priests (Aaron and his sons[Lev. 8:6–9:24]) of the Israelite sacrificial cult. Anointmentwith oil, the application of blood from a sanctified animal, and thedonning of priestly vestments are part of the ritual of ordination.

Theelection of the Levites as assistants to the Aaronide priests,substitutes for the required offering of all firstborn males ofIsrael, comes from God (Num. 8:5–22). The laying on of hands byelders accompanies the consecration of the Levites (Num. 8:10),allowing them to handle the sanctified accoutrements of thesacrificial cult.

NewTestament.In the NT, Jesus’ initiative stands behind the appointment ofthe disciples (Matt. 10:1–8; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).The disciples and/or elders preside over the appointment of otherparties to positions of leadership and service in the community offaith. Such narrated acts of ordination cover appointments to avariety of tasks within the NT. These tasks include that of choosingan apostle to replace Judas Iscariot (Acts 1:15–26), thedistribution of food (6:1–6), and carrying the gospel tospecific destinations (13:1–3).

Themeans for direction in election include prayer (Acts 13:1–3),along with the casting of lots (1:24–26). Furthermore, thecombination of prayer and fasting within the context of worship maybecome the occasion for direction from the Holy Spirit (13:1–3).A summary statement concerning the selection of elders in Acts 14:23concurs with 13:1–3, listing prayer and fasting as the means todiscernment. Also witnessed is the judgment of the community infinding servants filled with the Holy Spirit and wisdom (6:1–6).Thus, the ability of the community to recognize specificqualifications is enlisted in the process of election.

Thelaying on of hands may mark the commissioning of individuals tospecific tasks (Acts 13:3). Elsewhere, the same action, along with anact of prophecy, bestows “gifts” upon individuals (1Tim.4:14). The mention of “gifts” (healing, guidance,tongues, etc.), along with the specification of certain functionswithin the community of faith (prophets, apostles, teachers, etc.),occurs in Rom. 12:6–8; 1Cor. 12:27–30; Eph. 4:11.These passages offer an expansion of the list of functions and tasksdescribed in the narratives previously mentioned. All three passagesexhort the community to recognize the diversity of talent within thecommunity and to employ those gifts appropriately. These giftsinclude those of healing, miracles, guidance, and speech in strangetongues. The functions and offices mentioned include those ofprophet, apostle, and teacher. The collocation of such gifts andfunctions in these passages suggests, of course, that the appropriategift would accompany the ability to perform such functions in theappointment of an individual.

Summary.Although differences exist between the OT and the NT in the rolesprescribed by appointment and their attendant abilities, continuityacross both bodies of literature finds expression through theinitiative of God, the bestowal of a spirit of empowerment, and thepractice of the laying on of hands in acts of ordination.

A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospelto Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9),but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed hisletters. Actually, “Paul” was his last name. Romancitizens had three names; the last name was the family name, calledthe “cognomen.” We do not know Paul’s first andmiddle Roman name, but his last name is derived from the Latin Paulus(Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Cyprus, had the same family name[13:7]). Most people were known and called by their last name becausegroup identity was more important in the first-century Mediterraneanworld than individual recognition. For example, when speakingpublicly, Paul did not use his favorite self-designations, “apostleto the Gentiles” or “slave of Christ Jesus”;instead, he identified himself as a Jew, a citizen of Tarsus, astudent of Gamaliel (21:39; 22:3). His social identity was embeddedin his ethnicity, his nativity, his religion. However, even thosecategories cannot adequately describe Paul. He was a Jew but also aRoman citizen. Tarsus was his home (11:25–26), but he claimedthat he was brought up in Jerusalem. He spoke Aramaic but wrote Greekletters. He was once a Pharisee but then preached a circumcision-freegospel to Gentiles. In many respects, Paul is an enigma. Who was he?What did he believe? Why did he think he had to leave his previouslife in Judaism to become the apostle to the Gentiles? Why is he oneof the major contributors to the NT even though he was not a followerof the historical Jesus?

Paul’sLife

Paulas a converted Pharisee.Paul spent the first half of his life as a Pharisee. The Phariseeswere a Jewish sect that emphasized obedience to the law of God as themeans of maintaining holiness. Practically all Jews believed thatthey should obey the law, but what made the Pharisees unique wastheir emphasis on applying all commandments, even those intended onlyfor Levites and priests, to all Jews. For example, priests wererequired to keep certain rituals of hand washing before they ate(Lev. 22:1–9; cf. Exod 30:19–21; 40:31–32). So thePharisees extended these requirements to all Israel in order to showGod how serious they were about obeying the law (Mark 7:3–4).Obedience was crucial to God’s blessing; disobedience broughtGod’s curse. Therefore, the Pharisees established manytraditions, going beyond the letter of the law, to ensure compliance.To what extent the Jewish people followed the example of thePharisees is debated, but certainly it appeared to the people that noone was more zealous for God and his law than the Pharisees—azeal that would compel them to join in the stoning of obviousoffenders (Lev. 24:14; Acts 7:58). As a Pharisee, Paul’s zealfor the law led him to persecute Jewish Christians, not only inJerusalem but also outside Israel, in places such as Damascus (Acts8:3; 9:1–3; 22:4–5; Gal. 1:13–14; Phil. 3:6).Neither Paul nor Luke explains what the Pharisees found objectionableabout this Jewish movement known as “the Way.” In fact,Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel, advised the Sanhedrin to ignoremembers of the Way and not make trouble for them (Acts5:34–39)—advice obviously not taken by Paul. Perhaps itwas Jesus’ reputation as a lawbreaker or the fact that he haddied a cursed death according to the law that convinced Paul toimprison Jesus’ disciples (Deut. 21:23). Whatever the reason,Paul saw his role as persecutor of the church as the ultimate proofof his blamelessness under the law (Phil. 3:6).

AfterChrist appeared to Paul on the road to Damascus, everything changed:his life, his mission, his worldview (Acts 9:3–30). Paul leftPharisaism and immediately began preaching the gospel (Gal. 1:11–17).Those whom he persecuted were now friends. His zeal for the law wasreplaced by his zeal for Christ. It was a radical reversal. The rumorspread quickly: “The man who formerly persecuted us is nowpreaching the faith he once tried to destroy” (Gal. 1:23). Whythe sudden change? Some think that it is what Paul saw—theglorified Messiah—that changed his perspective. Theresurrection of Christ turned the curse of the cross into a blessing,death into life, shame into honor. The appearance of Christ(Christophany) was a revelation, an apocalypse, an end-of-the-worldevent for Paul. Old things passed away; everything became new (2Cor.5:17). What was divided under the old age of the law—Jews andGentiles, male and female, slave and free—was united in Christ.Other scholars emphasize it is what Paul heard during theChristophany that changed the course of his life. Paul interpretedChrist’s charge, “Go, preach to the Gentiles,” as aprophetic calling, perhaps even fulfilling Isaiah’s end-timevision of salvation of the whole world (Isa. 49:1–7; Gal.1:15–16). Thus, Paul’s westward push to take the gospelto the coastlands (Spain) was by divine design (Rom. 15:15–24).God commissioned Saul the Pharisee of the Jews to become Paul theapostle to the Gentiles because “the culmination of the ageshas come” (1Cor. 10:11).

Paul’sministry.By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching thegospel of Jesus Christ (AD 34–67)—a ministry that can bedivided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry(AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” aswe have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about hisactivities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for awhile and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal.1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter andJames the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus,evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas broughthim to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixedcongregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26).In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spentmost of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching thegospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of thethird decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel fromprison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another twoto three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for abrief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment inRome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.

Duringhis itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him tofree cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies(Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth).Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunitiesfor ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents.Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided abetter chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabascovered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) andAnatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeysPaul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor,Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were smalland provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of greateconomic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In themidst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among avariety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks,Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts hadworshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrificesat many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religiousfestivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). Afterbelieving the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churchesturned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and trueGod” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one Godquickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’sconverts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings forpatron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperialcult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for theirnewly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civicleaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41;Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul oftenwas run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message thatthreatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24;Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activitieseventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of timebefore his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up withhim (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoneror a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until theday he died.

Paul’sGospel

Thesources of Paul’s gospel.Paul ministered his entire life without the benefit of literaryGospels. Most scholars think that the earliest Gospel, Mark, waswritten about the time that Paul was martyred. Since Paul was not adisciple of Jesus and probably never heard him speak or witnessed hisearthly ministry, how did Paul know what to preach? Where did Paulget his gospel? Paul mentioned four sources. First, he received oraltraditions about Jesus from other Christians (1Cor. 15:1–7).For him, hearing what happened during the Lord’s Supper fromthose who followed Jesus was the same as receiving it from the Lord(1Cor. 11:23). Second, the Hebrew Scriptures were a majorsource of Paul’s gospel (Acts 17:2). Illumined by the HolySpirit, Paul saw the gospel proclaimed in the law (Rom. 10:6–8)and predicted by the prophets (15:12). Third, in addition to theChristophany on the road to Damascus, Paul experienced revelations ofChrist as epiphanies of the gospel (Acts 18:9–10; 26:18). Thisgave Paul the authority to claim that he received his gospelpreeminently from Christ (Gal. 1:1, 16; 2:2). Fourth, Paul saw lifeexperiences as a resource for the gospel (2Cor. 12:7–10).As Paul made sense of what happened to him, he shared these insightswith his converts as proof that “Christ is speaking through me”(2Cor. 13:3–4). Indeed, Paul’s ways of doing thegospel were to be taught in all the churches as gospel truth (1Cor.4:17), because as far as Paul was concerned, the gospel of JesusChrist was the gospel according to Paul.

Thedeath and resurrection of Jesus Christ.The center of Paul’s gospel was the death and resurrection ofJesus. The essence of what he preached was “Jesus Christ andhim crucified” (1Cor. 2:2). Furthermore, the resurrectionof Christ was indispensable to the gospel that Paul proclaimed.Without the resurrection, Paul argued, faith in Christ would be vainbecause believers would still be dead in their sins with no hope oflife after death—the resurrection of their bodies (1Cor.15:13–19). Exploring the center, Paul used several metaphorsdrawn from everyday life to explain the significance of Christ’swork on the cross. Paul used legal terms such as“justification”/“righteousness,” “law,”and “condemnation” when he explained how sinners arejustified by faith in Christ. Paul described the implications ofChrist’s death in religious terms, using words such as“sacrifice,” “sin,”“propitiation”/“expiation” (NIV: “sacrificeof atonement”), and “temple,” which would makesense to both Jews and Gentiles. He also borrowed words from theworld of commerce, such as “redemption,” “purchase,”and “slave,” especially when he emphasized the obedienceof Christ, of Paul, of all believers. He even used military terms todescribe how God turned enemies into friends through the cross: the“reconciliation” that came through the “victory”of Christ’s death when he “disarmed” the “powers.”

Paulalso relied heavily on Jewish theology as he sorted out the work ofGod in Christ Jesus. Paul was a monotheist but attributed divinestatus to Jesus (Phil. 2:6). Paul believed that Israel was God’schosen people but maintained that his Gentile converts were theelect, calling them the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16). Paulaffirmed the law was holy but argued that holiness came only throughthe indwelling Spirit (Rom. 7:12; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Paulbelieved that the Messiah’s appearance would bring about theend of the world but looked forward to Christ’s parousia(“appearance”) at the end of time. In other words, theperson and work of Christ formed the lens through which Paulinterpreted the Bible and made sense of the world. Indeed, Paul’sgospel was built on a foundation of Jewish doctrine, Jesus tradition,and religious experience.

Away of life.For Paul, the gospel was more than a set of beliefs; it was a way oflife. To believe in Christ Jesus not only entailed accepting hissacrificial death as atonement for sin but also meant followingChrist by taking up his cross—a life of sacrifice. Paulbelieved that he experienced the cross of Christ every time heendured hardship, every time he was persecuted, every time hesuffered loss (Phil. 3:7–11). And it was in the crucified lifethat Paul found resurrection power (3:12–21). The gospel wasthe divine paradigm for living. What happened to Christ is whathappened to Paul, and what happened to Paul is what would happen toall his converts. “Follow my example,” he wrote, “asI follow the example of Christ” (1Cor. 11:1). In fact,Paul believed that all Christians were constantly being conformed tothe image of God’s Son (Rom. 8:29). He was convinced that Godwould finish what he had started: the perfecting of his convertsuntil the day of Christ’s return and the resurrection of everybeliever (Phil. 1:6; 3:21). The only thing that his converts neededto imitate Christ was the indwelling power of his Spirit (the HolySpirit), the example of Paul’s life, and a letter every now andthen from their apostle.

Paul’sLetters

Paulsent letters to churches and individuals to inform his converts ofhis situation, offer encouragement, answer questions, and addressproblems that developed while he was away. There are thirteen lettersof Paul in the New Testament. Nine were written to churches or groupsof churches (Romans; 1 and 2Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians;Philippians; Colossions; 1 and 2Thessalonians) and four toindividuals (1 and 2Timothy; Titus; Philemon).

Paulthe apostle.In most of his letters, Paul was on the defense: defending hisapostleship, defending his itinerary, defending his gospel.Evidently, Paul’s opponents questioned whether Paul deserved tobe called “apostle,” since he had not followed thehistorical Jesus and used to persecute the church (1Cor.15:8–9). According to Acts, when the first Christians decidedto replace Judas Iscariot as one of the twelve apostles, theyestablished the following criterion: the candidate must have been afollower of Jesus from his baptism to his ascension (Acts 1:21–22).Two men were qualified; one was chosen by divine lot, implying thatthere could be only twelve. Did the early church’s decision torecognize only twelve apostles define apostleship once and for all?Paul did not think so. He recognized the significance of the Twelve,but he believed that there were other apostles as well: Bar-na-bas,James the brother of Jesus, and himself (1Cor. 15:5–9;Gal. 2:8–9). Paul knew that there were false apostles causingtrouble in the churches (2Cor. 11:13), some even carrying“letters of recommendation” (2Cor. 3:1). But onlythose who had seen the resurrected Christ and were commissioned byhim to preach the gospel were legitimate apostles (1Cor.9:1–2). The signs of apostleship were evident when thecommission was fulfilled: planting churches and dispensing the Spirit(2Cor. 3:2; 12:12; Gal. 3:5). Of all people, Paul’sconverts should have never questioned the authority of their apostle.They were the proof of his apostleship.

AlthoughPaul never mentioned this, the fact that he sent letters is evidenceof his apostleship. Paul believed that the obedience of Gentileconverts was his responsibility, a confirmation of his calling (Rom.15:18–19). So he sent letters to make sure that they werekeeping the traditions that he had taught them (1Cor. 11:2).Sometimes, all that his readers needed was a little encouragement tokeep up the good work (most of 1Thessalonians and 2Timothyare exhortations to keep doing what they were doing) or a moredetailed explanation of what they already knew (Ephesians,Philippians, 1Timothy, Titus). Many times, Paul sent letters tocorrect major problems within his churches. For example, some of theGalatians were submitting to the law and being circumcised (Gal.4:21; 5:2–7). Some of the Colossians were involved in strangepractices of asceticism and angel worship (Col. 2:16–23). Someof the Thessalonians had quit working for a living (2Thess.3:6–15). And, worst of all, the Corinthians were plagued withall kinds of problems: factions, lawsuits, incest, prostitutes,idolatry. Some of the Corinthians were also espousing falsetheological ideas, such as denying the resurrection (1Cor.15:12). Other churches had problems sorting out Paul’s theologyas well. For example, the Thessalonians were confused about lifeafter death, end times, and the return of Christ (1Thess.4:13–18; 2Thess. 2:1–12), and the Romans needed,among other things, instruction about the role of Israel in the lastdays (Rom. 9:1–11:32). The fact that Paul felt obliged to sendhis lengthiest letter, loaded with some of his most sophisticatedtheological arguments, to the church in Rome, which he did not startand had not visited, says much about the way Paul saw the authorityof his apostleship. Because he was the apostle to the Gentiles, Pauloperated as if he were the mentor of all churches with Gentilemembers.

Churchunity.Paul believed in the unity of the church. Indeed, he used severalmetaphors to help his readers see why it was important that one Lordand one faith should form one church. He described the church as atemple (1Cor. 3:16–17), a family (Eph. 2:19), and abody—his favorite metaphor (1Cor. 12:12–27). Hewarned of desecrating the temple with divisive teaching and immoralbehavior (1Cor. 3:1–6:20). He rebuked his children whenthey refused to obey him as their father (1Cor. 3:14–21)or mother (Gal. 4:19–20). And, more than any other analogy,Paul likened the church to a human body that could be maimed byprejudice and threatened by sickness (1Cor. 11:17–34). Tohim, a dismembered body was an unholy body; a segregated church meantthat Christ was divided (1Cor. 1:10–13). The ethnic,religious, social, political, geographical, and economic differencesevident in one of the most diverse collections of people in thefirst-century Mediterranean world made Paul’s vision of aunified church appear like an impossible dream. Yet the apostle tothe Gentiles believed that the unity of the body of Christ wasindispensable not only to his mission but also to the gospel of JesusChrist (Eph. 4:1–6). So he collected a relief offering amonghis Gentile converts to help poor Jewish Christians in Jerusalem(Rom. 15:26–27). He taught masters to treat their slaves likesiblings (Philem. 16). And he solicited Romans to fund his missiontrip to Spain (Rom. 15:24). As far as Paul was concerned, the gospelbrought down every wall that divides humanity because all people needsalvation in Christ (Eph. 2:14–18).

Conclusion

Paulwas a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, atheologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, aprisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of threedifferent men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitiouswriter. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He sawmore of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of thelongest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was afaithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressibletroublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or lessthan the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take thegospel to the ends of the earth.

A Pharisee commissioned by Jesus Christ to preach the gospelto Gentiles. His Jewish name was “Saul” (Acts 9:4; 13:9),but he preferred using his Roman name, especially when he signed hisletters. Actually, “Paul” was his last name. Romancitizens had three names; the last name was the family name, calledthe “cognomen.” We do not know Paul’s first andmiddle Roman name, but his last name is derived from the Latin Paulus(Sergius Paulus, the proconsul of Cyprus, had the same family name[13:7]). Most people were known and called by their last name becausegroup identity was more important in the first-century Mediterraneanworld than individual recognition. For example, when speakingpublicly, Paul did not use his favorite self-designations, “apostleto the Gentiles” or “slave of Christ Jesus”;instead, he identified himself as a Jew, a citizen of Tarsus, astudent of Gamaliel (21:39; 22:3). His social identity was embeddedin his ethnicity, his nativity, his religion. However, even thosecategories cannot adequately describe Paul. He was a Jew but also aRoman citizen. Tarsus was his home (11:25–26), but he claimedthat he was brought up in Jerusalem. He spoke Aramaic but wrote Greekletters. He was once a Pharisee but then preached a circumcision-freegospel to Gentiles. In many respects, Paul is an enigma. Who was he?What did he believe? Why did he think he had to leave his previouslife in Judaism to become the apostle to the Gentiles? Why is he oneof the major contributors to the NT even though he was not a followerof the historical Jesus?

Paul’sLife

Paulas a converted Pharisee.Paul spent the first half of his life as a Pharisee. The Phariseeswere a Jewish sect that emphasized obedience to the law of God as themeans of maintaining holiness. Practically all Jews believed thatthey should obey the law, but what made the Pharisees unique wastheir emphasis on applying all commandments, even those intended onlyfor Levites and priests, to all Jews. For example, priests wererequired to keep certain rituals of hand washing before they ate(Lev. 22:1–9; cf. Exod 30:19–21; 40:31–32). So thePharisees extended these requirements to all Israel in order to showGod how serious they were about obeying the law (Mark 7:3–4).Obedience was crucial to God’s blessing; disobedience broughtGod’s curse. Therefore, the Pharisees established manytraditions, going beyond the letter of the law, to ensure compliance.To what extent the Jewish people followed the example of thePharisees is debated, but certainly it appeared to the people that noone was more zealous for God and his law than the Pharisees—azeal that would compel them to join in the stoning of obviousoffenders (Lev. 24:14; Acts 7:58). As a Pharisee, Paul’s zealfor the law led him to persecute Jewish Christians, not only inJerusalem but also outside Israel, in places such as Damascus (Acts8:3; 9:1–3; 22:4–5; Gal. 1:13–14; Phil. 3:6).Neither Paul nor Luke explains what the Pharisees found objectionableabout this Jewish movement known as “the Way.” In fact,Paul’s teacher, Gamaliel, advised the Sanhedrin to ignoremembers of the Way and not make trouble for them (Acts5:34–39)—advice obviously not taken by Paul. Perhaps itwas Jesus’ reputation as a lawbreaker or the fact that he haddied a cursed death according to the law that convinced Paul toimprison Jesus’ disciples (Deut. 21:23). Whatever the reason,Paul saw his role as persecutor of the church as the ultimate proofof his blamelessness under the law (Phil. 3:6).

AfterChrist appeared to Paul on the road to Damascus, everything changed:his life, his mission, his worldview (Acts 9:3–30). Paul leftPharisaism and immediately began preaching the gospel (Gal. 1:11–17).Those whom he persecuted were now friends. His zeal for the law wasreplaced by his zeal for Christ. It was a radical reversal. The rumorspread quickly: “The man who formerly persecuted us is nowpreaching the faith he once tried to destroy” (Gal. 1:23). Whythe sudden change? Some think that it is what Paul saw—theglorified Messiah—that changed his perspective. Theresurrection of Christ turned the curse of the cross into a blessing,death into life, shame into honor. The appearance of Christ(Christophany) was a revelation, an apocalypse, an end-of-the-worldevent for Paul. Old things passed away; everything became new (2Cor.5:17). What was divided under the old age of the law—Jews andGentiles, male and female, slave and free—was united in Christ.Other scholars emphasize it is what Paul heard during theChristophany that changed the course of his life. Paul interpretedChrist’s charge, “Go, preach to the Gentiles,” as aprophetic calling, perhaps even fulfilling Isaiah’s end-timevision of salvation of the whole world (Isa. 49:1–7; Gal.1:15–16). Thus, Paul’s westward push to take the gospelto the coastlands (Spain) was by divine design (Rom. 15:15–24).God commissioned Saul the Pharisee of the Jews to become Paul theapostle to the Gentiles because “the culmination of the ageshas come” (1Cor. 10:11).

Paul’sministry.By our best estimates, Paul spent about thirty years preaching thegospel of Jesus Christ (AD 34–67)—a ministry that can bedivided roughly into three decades. The first decade of his ministry(AD 34–46) has been called the “silent years,” aswe have few details from Acts or the Pauline Epistles about hisactivities. For example, we know that he preached in Damascus for awhile and spent some time in Arabia (a total of three years [Gal.1:17–18]). He made a quick trip to Jerusalem to meet Peter andJames the brother of Jesus. Then he returned home to Tarsus,evidently preaching there for several years, until Barnabas broughthim to Antioch in Syria to help with the ministry of this mixedcongregation of Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:26–30; 11:25–26).In the second decade of his ministry (AD 46–59), Paul spentmost of his life on the road, an itinerant ministry of preaching thegospel and planting churches from Cyprus to Corinth. For most of thethird decade (AD 59–67), Paul ministered the gospel fromprison, spending over two years imprisoned in Caesarea, another twoto three years in a Roman prison (Acts ends here), released for abrief time (two years?) before his final arrest and imprisonment inRome, where, according to church tradition, he was executed.

Duringhis itinerant ministry, Paul traveled Roman roads that led him tofree cities (Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens) and Roman colonies(Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, Troas, Philippi, Corinth).Founding churches in urban centers afforded Paul more opportunitiesfor ministry and for his work of making and repairing tents.Traveling within the borders of the Roman Empire also provided abetter chance of protection as a citizen. At first, Paul and Barnabascovered familiar territory: Cyprus (Barnabas’s home region) andAnatolia (Paul’s home region). Then, with successive journeysPaul and other missionary companions branched out to Asia Minor,Macedonia, and Achaia. Some of the towns that Paul visited were smalland provincial (Derbe, Lystra); others were major cities of greateconomic and intellectual commerce (Ephesus, Corinth, Athens). In themidst of such cultural diversity, Paul found receptive ears among avariety of ethnic groups: Gauls, Phrygians and Lycaonians, Greeks,Romans, and Jews. Previously, Paul’s Gentile converts hadworshiped many gods (local, ethnic, and imperial), offered sacrificesat many shrines and temples, and joined in all the religiousfestivals (often involving immoral and ungodly practices). Afterbelieving the gospel, Paul’s predominantly Gentile churchesturned from their idolatrous ways to serve “the living and trueGod” (1Thess. 1:9). Their exclusive devotion to one Godquickly led to economic and political problems, for both Paul’sconverts and the cities of their residence. No more offerings forpatron gods, no more support for local synagogues or the imperialcult—Paul’s converts were often persecuted for theirnewly found faith by local religious guilds (idol makers!) and civicleaders courting Roman favor (Acts 17:6–9; 19:23–41;Phil. 1:27–30; 1Thess. 2:14–16). Indeed, Paul oftenwas run out of town as a troublemaker who preached a message thatthreatened both the Jewish and the Roman ways of life (Acts 16:19–24;Phil. 3:17–4:1). It is no wonder that Paul’s activitieseventually landed him in a Roman prison. It was only a matter of timebefore his reputation as a “lawbreaker” caught up withhim (Acts 21:21). But that did not stop Paul. Whether as a prisoneror a free man, Paul proclaimed the gospel of Jesus Christ until theday he died.

Paul’sGospel

Thesources of Paul’s gospel.Paul ministered his entire life without the benefit of literaryGospels. Most scholars think that the earliest Gospel, Mark, waswritten about the time that Paul was martyred. Since Paul was not adisciple of Jesus and probably never heard him speak or witnessed hisearthly ministry, how did Paul know what to preach? Where did Paulget his gospel? Paul mentioned four sources. First, he received oraltraditions about Jesus from other Christians (1Cor. 15:1–7).For him, hearing what happened during the Lord’s Supper fromthose who followed Jesus was the same as receiving it from the Lord(1Cor. 11:23). Second, the Hebrew Scriptures were a majorsource of Paul’s gospel (Acts 17:2). Illumined by the HolySpirit, Paul saw the gospel proclaimed in the law (Rom. 10:6–8)and predicted by the prophets (15:12). Third, in addition to theChristophany on the road to Damascus, Paul experienced revelations ofChrist as epiphanies of the gospel (Acts 18:9–10; 26:18). Thisgave Paul the authority to claim that he received his gospelpreeminently from Christ (Gal. 1:1, 16; 2:2). Fourth, Paul saw lifeexperiences as a resource for the gospel (2Cor. 12:7–10).As Paul made sense of what happened to him, he shared these insightswith his converts as proof that “Christ is speaking through me”(2Cor. 13:3–4). Indeed, Paul’s ways of doing thegospel were to be taught in all the churches as gospel truth (1Cor.4:17), because as far as Paul was concerned, the gospel of JesusChrist was the gospel according to Paul.

Thedeath and resurrection of Jesus Christ.The center of Paul’s gospel was the death and resurrection ofJesus. The essence of what he preached was “Jesus Christ andhim crucified” (1Cor. 2:2). Furthermore, the resurrectionof Christ was indispensable to the gospel that Paul proclaimed.Without the resurrection, Paul argued, faith in Christ would be vainbecause believers would still be dead in their sins with no hope oflife after death—the resurrection of their bodies (1Cor.15:13–19). Exploring the center, Paul used several metaphorsdrawn from everyday life to explain the significance of Christ’swork on the cross. Paul used legal terms such as“justification”/“righteousness,” “law,”and “condemnation” when he explained how sinners arejustified by faith in Christ. Paul described the implications ofChrist’s death in religious terms, using words such as“sacrifice,” “sin,”“propitiation”/“expiation” (NIV: “sacrificeof atonement”), and “temple,” which would makesense to both Jews and Gentiles. He also borrowed words from theworld of commerce, such as “redemption,” “purchase,”and “slave,” especially when he emphasized the obedienceof Christ, of Paul, of all believers. He even used military terms todescribe how God turned enemies into friends through the cross: the“reconciliation” that came through the “victory”of Christ’s death when he “disarmed” the “powers.”

Paulalso relied heavily on Jewish theology as he sorted out the work ofGod in Christ Jesus. Paul was a monotheist but attributed divinestatus to Jesus (Phil. 2:6). Paul believed that Israel was God’schosen people but maintained that his Gentile converts were theelect, calling them the “Israel of God” (Gal. 6:16). Paulaffirmed the law was holy but argued that holiness came only throughthe indwelling Spirit (Rom. 7:12; 1Thess. 4:7–8). Paulbelieved that the Messiah’s appearance would bring about theend of the world but looked forward to Christ’s parousia(“appearance”) at the end of time. In other words, theperson and work of Christ formed the lens through which Paulinterpreted the Bible and made sense of the world. Indeed, Paul’sgospel was built on a foundation of Jewish doctrine, Jesus tradition,and religious experience.

Away of life.For Paul, the gospel was more than a set of beliefs; it was a way oflife. To believe in Christ Jesus not only entailed accepting hissacrificial death as atonement for sin but also meant followingChrist by taking up his cross—a life of sacrifice. Paulbelieved that he experienced the cross of Christ every time heendured hardship, every time he was persecuted, every time hesuffered loss (Phil. 3:7–11). And it was in the crucified lifethat Paul found resurrection power (3:12–21). The gospel wasthe divine paradigm for living. What happened to Christ is whathappened to Paul, and what happened to Paul is what would happen toall his converts. “Follow my example,” he wrote, “asI follow the example of Christ” (1Cor. 11:1). In fact,Paul believed that all Christians were constantly being conformed tothe image of God’s Son (Rom. 8:29). He was convinced that Godwould finish what he had started: the perfecting of his convertsuntil the day of Christ’s return and the resurrection of everybeliever (Phil. 1:6; 3:21). The only thing that his converts neededto imitate Christ was the indwelling power of his Spirit (the HolySpirit), the example of Paul’s life, and a letter every now andthen from their apostle.

Paul’sLetters

Paulsent letters to churches and individuals to inform his converts ofhis situation, offer encouragement, answer questions, and addressproblems that developed while he was away. There are thirteen lettersof Paul in the New Testament. Nine were written to churches or groupsof churches (Romans; 1 and 2Corinthians; Galatians; Ephesians;Philippians; Colossions; 1 and 2Thessalonians) and four toindividuals (1 and 2Timothy; Titus; Philemon).

Paulthe apostle.In most of his letters, Paul was on the defense: defending hisapostleship, defending his itinerary, defending his gospel.Evidently, Paul’s opponents questioned whether Paul deserved tobe called “apostle,” since he had not followed thehistorical Jesus and used to persecute the church (1Cor.15:8–9). According to Acts, when the first Christians decidedto replace Judas Iscariot as one of the twelve apostles, theyestablished the following criterion: the candidate must have been afollower of Jesus from his baptism to his ascension (Acts 1:21–22).Two men were qualified; one was chosen by divine lot, implying thatthere could be only twelve. Did the early church’s decision torecognize only twelve apostles define apostleship once and for all?Paul did not think so. He recognized the significance of the Twelve,but he believed that there were other apostles as well: Bar-na-bas,James the brother of Jesus, and himself (1Cor. 15:5–9;Gal. 2:8–9). Paul knew that there were false apostles causingtrouble in the churches (2Cor. 11:13), some even carrying“letters of recommendation” (2Cor. 3:1). But onlythose who had seen the resurrected Christ and were commissioned byhim to preach the gospel were legitimate apostles (1Cor.9:1–2). The signs of apostleship were evident when thecommission was fulfilled: planting churches and dispensing the Spirit(2Cor. 3:2; 12:12; Gal. 3:5). Of all people, Paul’sconverts should have never questioned the authority of their apostle.They were the proof of his apostleship.

AlthoughPaul never mentioned this, the fact that he sent letters is evidenceof his apostleship. Paul believed that the obedience of Gentileconverts was his responsibility, a confirmation of his calling (Rom.15:18–19). So he sent letters to make sure that they werekeeping the traditions that he had taught them (1Cor. 11:2).Sometimes, all that his readers needed was a little encouragement tokeep up the good work (most of 1Thessalonians and 2Timothyare exhortations to keep doing what they were doing) or a moredetailed explanation of what they already knew (Ephesians,Philippians, 1Timothy, Titus). Many times, Paul sent letters tocorrect major problems within his churches. For example, some of theGalatians were submitting to the law and being circumcised (Gal.4:21; 5:2–7). Some of the Colossians were involved in strangepractices of asceticism and angel worship (Col. 2:16–23). Someof the Thessalonians had quit working for a living (2Thess.3:6–15). And, worst of all, the Corinthians were plagued withall kinds of problems: factions, lawsuits, incest, prostitutes,idolatry. Some of the Corinthians were also espousing falsetheological ideas, such as denying the resurrection (1Cor.15:12). Other churches had problems sorting out Paul’s theologyas well. For example, the Thessalonians were confused about lifeafter death, end times, and the return of Christ (1Thess.4:13–18; 2Thess. 2:1–12), and the Romans needed,among other things, instruction about the role of Israel in the lastdays (Rom. 9:1–11:32). The fact that Paul felt obliged to sendhis lengthiest letter, loaded with some of his most sophisticatedtheological arguments, to the church in Rome, which he did not startand had not visited, says much about the way Paul saw the authorityof his apostleship. Because he was the apostle to the Gentiles, Pauloperated as if he were the mentor of all churches with Gentilemembers.

Churchunity.Paul believed in the unity of the church. Indeed, he used severalmetaphors to help his readers see why it was important that one Lordand one faith should form one church. He described the church as atemple (1Cor. 3:16–17), a family (Eph. 2:19), and abody—his favorite metaphor (1Cor. 12:12–27). Hewarned of desecrating the temple with divisive teaching and immoralbehavior (1Cor. 3:1–6:20). He rebuked his children whenthey refused to obey him as their father (1Cor. 3:14–21)or mother (Gal. 4:19–20). And, more than any other analogy,Paul likened the church to a human body that could be maimed byprejudice and threatened by sickness (1Cor. 11:17–34). Tohim, a dismembered body was an unholy body; a segregated church meantthat Christ was divided (1Cor. 1:10–13). The ethnic,religious, social, political, geographical, and economic differencesevident in one of the most diverse collections of people in thefirst-century Mediterranean world made Paul’s vision of aunified church appear like an impossible dream. Yet the apostle tothe Gentiles believed that the unity of the body of Christ wasindispensable not only to his mission but also to the gospel of JesusChrist (Eph. 4:1–6). So he collected a relief offering amonghis Gentile converts to help poor Jewish Christians in Jerusalem(Rom. 15:26–27). He taught masters to treat their slaves likesiblings (Philem. 16). And he solicited Romans to fund his missiontrip to Spain (Rom. 15:24). As far as Paul was concerned, the gospelbrought down every wall that divides humanity because all people needsalvation in Christ (Eph. 2:14–18).

Conclusion

Paulwas a tentmaker, a missionary, a writer, a preacher, a teacher, atheologian, an evangelist, a mentor, a prophet, a miracle worker, aprisoner, and a martyr. His life story reads like the tale of threedifferent men: a devout Pharisee, a tireless traveler, an ambitiouswriter. He knew the Scriptures better than did most people. He sawmore of the world than did most merchants. He wrote some of thelongest letters known at that time. To his converts, he was afaithful friend. To his opponents, he was an irrepressibletroublemaker. But, according to Paul, he was nothing more or lessthan the man whom God had called through Jesus Christ to take thegospel to the ends of the earth.

An occupation or profession is the usual work or business inwhich a person engages for the sake of earning a living. In biblicaltimes, family or social standing most often determined occupation.This was particularly true for occupations tied to land, such asplanting crops and raising animals, since land in ancient Israel waspassed down within the tribe, normally from fathers to sons (Josh.14:9; Ezek. 46:18). Sometimes daughters also received a share in thefamily inheritance (Josh. 17:6). Most people gained their livelihoodfrom their family’s land, and those who did not have land hiredthemselves out to work for wages (Deut. 24:14). A son normallylearned his trade from his father (Gen. 47:3; 2Kings 4:18;Matt. 4:21) and continued in that occupation unless called into God’sservice (1Kings 19:19–21; Jer. 1:5; Matt. 4:22).

Cicero,writing around the time of the NT, considered occupations such as taxcollector, laborer, and fisherman to be vulgar. Conversely,professions such as teacher, doctor, and wholesale trader were morehonorable, with landowner being the most respectable and profitableprofession (Off. 1.42).

Agricultureand Farming

Farmingis the earliest recorded occupation in the Bible, as the first manwas called to work and keep the garden (Gen. 2:15). Even after theexile from Eden because of sin, Adam worked the ground for food, asdid Cain, his firstborn son (Gen. 3:17–18; 4:2). The openingchapters of the Bible establish a fundamental link between “man”(’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah). After theflood, Noah established himself as a “man of the soil”(’ish ha’adamah) by planting a vineyard (Gen. 9:20). KingUzziah “loved the soil” (’oheb ’adamah) andso employed people to work in his fields and vineyards (2Chron.26:10).

Goddemonstrated his covenant commitment to Isaac by blessing him with anincredible harvest (Gen. 26:12), and he promised to prosper Israel’sfarms if the people obeyed him (Deut. 28:4) and to curse the fruit oftheir ground if they disobeyed (Deut. 28:18). The OT ideal was foreveryone to live “under their own vine and under their own figtree” (1Kings 4:25; Mic. 4:4). According to Prov. 28:19,the diligent farmer would have abundant food.

Jesus’parables frequently employed agricultural imagery that would havebeen readily understandable in first-century Palestine, where manypeople were farmers (cf. Mark 4:1–9; 12:1–11) and someowned land (Acts 4:34). The people living around Jerusalem at thistime engaged in agriculture, soil cultivation, and cattle raising(Let. Aris. 107–112).

Herdingand Hunting

Herdinganimals is the second-oldest occupation recorded in Scripture (afterfarming), and raising flocks and herds continued to be one of themost common and important professions throughout biblical times. Abelis the first “keeper of sheep” in the Bible (Gen. 4:2NRSV). Several generations later, Jabal pioneered the nomadic herdinglifestyle (Gen. 4:20). The patriarchs were shepherds (Gen. 47:3), aswere Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1Sam. 17:34), and many others inthe OT. Josephus acknowledged that “feeding of sheep was theemployment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages”(Ag.Ap. 1.91). While men typically worked as shepherds andherdsmen, the occupation was also open to women, such as Rachel,whose fathers owned sheep (Gen. 29:9). Shepherds were present atJesus’ birth (Luke 2:8–20), and Jesus’ teachingsuggests that shepherding was a common occupation in Palestine (cf.Matt. 18:12; John 10:1–30).

Manypeople in biblical times hunted, either for food, sport, orprotection. The first recorded hunter is Nimrod, “a mightyhunter before the Lord” (Gen. 10:9). Ishmael was “anexpert with the bow” (Gen. 21:20 NRSV), while Esau was “askillful hunter, a man of the open country” who brought backwild game for food (25:27–28). The name of Pokereth-Hazzebaim,included in the genealogy of Solomon’s servants in Ezra 2:57,reflects his occupation as a “gazelle catcher” (cf.1Kings 4:23).

Buildersand Craftsmen

Cainwas the first person in the Bible to build a city (Gen. 4:17), andhis descendant Tubal-Cain was the first metalworker (4:22). Nimrodbuilt a number of cities (10:11–12), and the beginning ofNimrod’s kingdom was Babel (10:10), where the people gatheredtogether to build a city with brick (11:3). Builders in Mesopotamiaused baked brick and asphalt, while Israelite builders usuallypreferred the more readily available stone and mortar. After Joseph’sdeath, Israel was conscripted into forced labor in Egypt, whichinvolved building cities of brick and mortar (Exod. 1:11).

Therole of craftsmen in the construction of the tabernacle wasparticularly significant. Bezalel and Oholiab were “skilledworkers and designers” empowered by God for work on thetabernacle (Exod. 35:35). They engaged in “all kinds ofcrafts,” including artistic metalworking, masonry, carpentry,and weaving (Exod. 31:4–5; 38:23).

Kingsin Israel often commissioned important building projects (1Kings12:25; 15:22; 16:24; 2Chron. 26:9; Josephus, J.W. 1.401–2).Carpenters and stonemasons worked on David’s palace (2Sam.5:11). Solomon conscripted laborers to build the temple and alsoemployed carriers, stonecutters, craftsmen, and foremen to supervisethe work (1Kings 5:13–18). After the Babylonian exile,many Israelites were involved in rebuilding the temple and the wallof Jerusalem, which had been destroyed (Ezra 3:8; Neh. 4:16–18).These projects, directed by Zerubbabel and Nehemiah, utilized masons,carpenters, and other workers (Ezra 3:7).

Jesusis referred to as a tektōn (Mark 6:3) and as the son of a tektōn(Matt. 13:55), with tektōn usually translated “carpenter”by English versions. However,recent scholarshiphas demonstrated that Jesus was likely a builder, not a carpenter inthe modern sense of the term. In the LXX, the word tektōntypically translates a Hebrew word, kharash, used broadly to refer tocraftsmen working with stone, wood, or metal.

Musicians

Thefirst musician recorded in Scripture is Jubal, “the father ofall who play the stringed instruments and pipes” (Gen. 4:21).Musicians performed a variety of roles in ancient society, as they dotoday. Singers and instrumentalists were employed to celebratefestive occasions, often to provide accompaniment for dancing (Gen.31:27; Luke 15:25), to soothe the sick or distressed (1Sam.16:16), and to express lamentation (Job 30:31).

Musiciansplayed an important role in leading God’s people in worship.The “director of music” is mentioned in the headings offifty-five psalms and Hab. 3:19. The most famous musician inScripture is David, “the singer of Israel’s psalms”(2Sam. 23:1 GW), who played the harp (1Sam. 16:18) andwrote or inspired at least seventy-three canonical psalms. Solomonwas also a notable songwriter and lover of music (1Kings 4:32).David appointed many Levites as singers and musicians to lead Israelin worship (1Chron. 15:16; 23:5). The musicians played lyres,harps, cymbals, and trumpets (2Chron. 5:12).

Government,Politics, and Military

Beforethe monarchy, there were no formal government offices. Under Moses, agroup of seventy elders in Israel served as leaders and officials,and these men were to carry out Moses’ decrees and judge thepeople on most matters (Exod. 18:20–22; Num. 11:16). AfterJoshua’s death, God raised up judges to rescue Israel fromforeign enemies and lead the people (Judg. 2:16) until the time ofSamuel, when Saul was made king (1Sam. 11:15).

Kingsin Israel employed various officials. In 2Sam. 8:16–18,Joab is listed first among David’s officials, which suggeststhat the military commander was second in authority after the king.Under Solomon, the leader of the army is called “commander inchief” (1Kings 4:4). The royal cabinet included a numberof key advisers, including the recorder, the secretary, and the“confidant” of the king (cf. 2Sam. 16:16). The OTdoes not specify the precise roles of these officials. The recorderwas among the highest governmental positions and served as a royalcounselor. In Hebrew, mazkir (“recorder”) is a cognatenoun to the verb zkr (“to remember”), which suggests thatthis official may have managed and preserved public records (2Kings18:18; Isa. 36:22). The main task of the king’s secretary orscribe (sop̱er)was to write down (sapar) official state documents (2Sam.8:17), and he advised the king and also provided financial oversight(2Kings 12:10). Recorders and secretaries apparently were welleducated and multilingual, as was the palace administrator (2Kings18:18, 26). Solomon’s officials included supervisors of thepalace and the forced labor, as well as governors who suppliedprovisions for the king’s household (1Kings 4:6–7).The OT mentions cupbearers in Israel’s government and in otheradministrations (Gen. 40:1; 1Kings 10:5; Neh. 1:11). Thecupbearer served as the royal wine taster; he protected the king frombeing poisoned and had direct access to the monarch.

Inthe Roman Empire, the emperor was absolute ruler (1Pet. 2:17),with the senate next in authority. Proconsuls held judicial andmilitary authority over larger provinces (Acts 18:12), prefects(governors) administered smaller provinces (Matt. 27:2), withtetrarchs over one-fourth of a province (Luke 3:1).

Christiansin NT times engaged in civil service. Erastus was a financial officerin Corinth (Rom. 16:23), and he may be the same Erastus commemoratedin an inscription from this period who held the office of aedile. Theproconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:7); Manaen, a close friend of HerodAntipas (Acts 13:1); and members of Caesar’s household (Phil.4:22) were also Christian public leaders.

Tradeand Economics

Fromearliest times, people have exchanged goods and property. WhenAbraham purchased Ephron’s field, his silver was measured“according to the weight current among the merchants”(Gen. 23:16), which suggests that a recognized system of publictrading was in place during the time of the patriarchs. Traders ofcommodities such as spices traveled along caravan routes betweensouthern Arabia and Egypt, and these traders often acquired slavesalong the way (Gen. 37:28). Solomon employed royal merchants to buyand sell goods (1Kings 10:28).

Inthe first century, Jews were engaged broadly in economic life aslandowners, artisans, merchants, traders, bankers, and slaves.Several of Jesus’ disciples were fishermen (Matt. 4:18). Lukewas a physician, a well-educated and respectable professional (Col.4:14). Lydia was a dealer in purple cloth (Acts 16:14). Paul, Aquila,and Priscilla worked as tentmakers (Acts 18:3). In the Roman Empire,commerce and pagan religion often intermingled. Merchants oftenformed trade guilds, where membership sometimes required religiousand moral compromise. In Ephesus, silversmiths and craftsmen inrelated trades turned significant profit through their connectionswith the local Artemis cult (Acts 19:24–27).

Jesusfrequently spent time with tax collectors, such as Levi (also called“Matthew”) (Matt. 9:9; Mark 2:14). Tax collectors were adespised group because often they became wealthy by taking advantageof the Roman taxation system, which allowed them to charge commissionon taxes collected (Luke 19:2, 8). Jesus’ parable of thetalents references bankers who offered interest on deposits collected(Matt. 25:27), and Rev. 3:17–18 alludes to the fact thatLaodicea was a financial center with a significant banking system.

Servantsand Slaves

Inthe OT, ’ebed most often designates a slave or servant, whoseoccupation involves work (’abad ) as a subordinate. Someservants held very important positions in their master’shousehold (Gen. 24:2), while many others toiled in hard labor (Job7:2). Israelites were not to enslave their kinfolk, but they couldtake slaves from other nations. Fellow Israelites who became poorcould serve as hired workers, but they were to be released along withtheir children at the Jubilee because God had brought Israel out fromEgyptian slavery and they belonged to God as his servants (Lev.25:39–46).

Slavesin the Roman world were property like goods or cattle, possessed byanother (Dio Chrysostom, 2Serv. lib. 24). Unlike modern slaverypractices, race played no factor in the Roman institution of slavery.Slaves were kidnapped and sold in NT times (1Tim. 1:10; Rev.18:13), but the majority of slaves were so by birth. The mostprominent slave in the NT is Onesimus, for whom Paul intercedes withhis master, Philemon (Philem. 10, 16). Believing slaves were to obeytheir earthly masters “as slaves of Christ” (Eph. 6:5–6),but the NT stressed the equality of slave and free in Christ (Gal.3:28). Paul called himself a “servant [doulos] of Christ Jesus”(Rom. 1:1).

ReligiousService

MostIsraelites engaged in professional religious service were Levites(Num. 3:12), including Moses, Aaron, and the priests in Aaron’sline (Exod. 6:19–20; 35:19). The priests offered sacrifices toGod on behalf of the people (Heb. 5:1). Under the priests’direction, the Levites were charged with caring for the tabernacleand its furnishings (Num. 1:49; 1Chron. 23:32) and carrying theark of the covenant (1Chron. 15:2). They were set apart toserve in God’s presence (Deut. 18:7) and to lead the people inworship (2Chron. 5:12). Further, priests often played animportant advisory role to Israel’s kings (2Sam. 8:17;1Kings 4:5; 2Kings 12:2).

InIsrael, people went to seers and prophets to inquire of God (1Sam.9:9), for they received and communicated God’s word (2Sam.24:11; Jer. 37:6). Sometimes individuals are mentioned as prophets,and other times the prophets are discussed as an organized group(1Sam. 19:20; 1Kings 22:6).

TheNT references a number of ministerial offices (1Cor. 12:28;Eph. 4:11; 1Tim. 3:1–12). Not all ministers were paid,though teachers and preachers had a right to “receive theirliving from the gospel” (1Cor. 9:14–15; cf. 1Tim.5:17). Apostles were those sent out by Jesus as his representatives.The term apostolos refers particularly to the twelve apostles whowere with Jesus during his earthly ministry and who were witnesses ofhis resurrection (Acts 1:21–22). Paul referred to himself as anapostle (Gal. 1:1; 1Cor. 1:1), and he calls Epaph-ro-di-tus andothers “messengers” (apostoloi) in the churches (2Cor.8:23; Phil. 2:25). Prophets have the spiritual gift of prophecy andspeak to strengthen, encourage, and comfort the church (Acts 15:32;1Cor. 14:3). Overseers (also called “elders” or“pastors”) are qualified leaders who teach, shepherd, andexercise authority in the church (1Tim. 3:1; 1Pet. 5:2).Evangelists and missionaries proclaim the gospel and aim to winconverts to Christ (Acts 21:8; 2Tim. 4:5). Those ministers whoare faithful to the gospel deserve support (3John8).

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

OldTestament

Phoeniciansand Philistines. Asa people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked andtimber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites ofbiblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring orshipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises onalliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenicianstates to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and hadaccess to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians(the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity fortheir seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily betweenSyria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout theMediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia(Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Anotherseagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose baseof power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. TheBible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod,Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the SeaPeoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in thetwelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

Theperennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precludedjoint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and thePhoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritimeactivities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of thePhilistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remainedconfined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attemptto take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. Whenthey did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert amilitary and political presence among the agrarian Israelites andJudahites rather than to establish permanent settlements andPhilistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at MedinetHabu (in the mortuary temple of RamessesIII) depict a navalbattle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs includepictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israeliteseafaring.One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes theDanites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg.5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlappedwith the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlappedsubstantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg.5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked inthe port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. Inanother passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It isnoteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughlybetween Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance ofnatural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificialharbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of sucha project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet ofbreakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported fromItaly—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors inthis region.

Solomon’sfleet.The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign ofSolomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, whichis near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1Kings9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir(1Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, towhich a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. Thestory confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians inthe area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram[the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew thesea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men”(1Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have beenimported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1Kings 9:11). Even atthe height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embarkon sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

Thesuccess of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only onwarm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial controlof the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. Thisfavorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout thebiblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on theseas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel wasan essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and withit to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. ThePhoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean,could never independently control the long overland route fromPhoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory ofIsrael and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerfulIsraelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiramsent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen andsupplies for the construction of the temple (1Kings 5:10–12).Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships”that would return to port every three years bringing “gold,silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat.In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted torepeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber(1Kings 22:48–49; 2Chron. 20:35–37).According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they couldset sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of thestory disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political andeconomic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

Bythis time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, withthe northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politicallycloser to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel,Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, marriedJezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal(1Kings 16:31). According to 1Kings, King Ahaziah ofIsrael (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat bysending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomonin the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion,possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northerndominance. According to 2Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat didcooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that theships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat fortoo close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In1Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’sventure there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overlandroute between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success ofany voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

Howeverthe contradiction between 1Kings and 2Chroniclesregarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions ofthe story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commandedthe interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, andits successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of allthree.

Shipsof Tarshish.Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon andJehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1Kings10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associatedwith the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron,lead, tin, gold, and silver (1Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer.10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish”is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of theircargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekielobserves, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for yourwares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Youroarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

Inthe Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan(Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of theeastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples ofthe Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia”[see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that theships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeasternTurkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul[Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony ofTartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This locationfigures in the interpretation of the identification of thedestination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he wereavoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head towardSpain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus inCilicia.

Inaddition to these two geographical options, some have attempted toexplain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as derivingfrom the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the manyreferences to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used totransport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar hasproposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos,meaning “oar.”

Descriptionsof ships and seafaring.Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek.27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. Thepicture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built andmanned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber forthe construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, amongother places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen(v.7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were fromthe Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list alarge number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety ofcargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and theIsraelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheatfrom Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm”(v.17)—thus filling out the picture of what theIsraelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury itemsimported by their country from elsewhere.

In1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician shipsthat had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, eachmeasuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wineand were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies inthe western Mediterranean.

Shipsand sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded aship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on theMediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features ofancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Notonly the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumablynon-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing ofa god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god(1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure.When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the samestrategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits ofancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods whocontrolled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance,are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples(presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the portcities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from anIsraelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on thesea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters”(i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God ofIsrael, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm.This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a stormand the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safehaven.

Noah’sArk

Accordingto the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feetwide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen.6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, theship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as havingsix decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozencubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (arough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships aredescribed as providing space for the builder’s family and everyliving creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but itsdimensions are not given.

Becauseof the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to drawconclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historicalantiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblicaltext, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship inhistory, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming,completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore andaft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with earlytwentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant lengthrendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. Thelargest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the GreekSyracusia(third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis(second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s“Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered inmodern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Plinythe Elder; and PtolemyIV’s Tessarakonteres (third centuryBC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This lastship was not designed for cruising in open water.

NewTestament

Fishingin the Sea of Galilee. Severalof Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee,and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing andtraveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both fromboats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermenon the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto thebeach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish(Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enoughto transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boatscould be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort torowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesusstood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen mileslong. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea toavoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g.,Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-firstcentury AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had beenscuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “JesusBoat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in lengthand has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of woodwere used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life.While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or hisdisciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and itprovides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

Asecond source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT isthe account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the caseof Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paullearned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats:among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, herecalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and aday in the open sea” (2Cor. 11:25).

Paul’sjourneys.A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives someidea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in theeastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1.Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleuciain Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus(Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). Afterjourneying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where heembarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing againthrough the port at Salamis (14:26).

2.The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but ratherwith a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustratingthat although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, theoverland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul wouldrepeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travelwas fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternativeland route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It isduring the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts ofPaul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed theshort distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the islandof Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast fromBerea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey,Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus(18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call notmentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of seatravel so far mentioned.

3.The third missionary journey once more began with a long overlandtrip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had manyassociates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean,from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point,Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while hiscompanions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, hesailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south ofCyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship againhugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Pauldisembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate thevariety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailingin deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there werereasons to make frequent stops.

4.Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to atrial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. Fromthe account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at seain the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and itcarried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiersand prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’sfriend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’sowner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and tooksoundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’scourse could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds:twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to thelee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, butthe only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

Whenextended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option wassimply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in aharbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learnsomething of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many ofwhich are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hullof the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), thelifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchorswere deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncomingwaves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargoand gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah,sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see alsothe protective emblems in 28:11).

Whenall other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on asandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage tothe boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, thedecision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of theship (27:41).

Metaphorsand illustrations.Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. Jameslikens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship:although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a greatship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of theunwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph.4:14). In 1Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience islikened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’sfaithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

The spectrum of meaning of “faith” and “faithfulness” may be applied both to God and to human beings. Cognates of “faith” are used interpersonally in human relationships but are used in the Bible specifically to denote the interaction between God and humanity, and human response to God. A question of theological pertinence is the degree to which one must distinguish between faith as an agent of personal belief and faith as an object of personal belief as pertaining to the relationship between God and human being.

In Hebrew the words most often translated “faith” or “faithful” are ’emunah and ’emet. In Greek the word rendered most frequently “faith” or “faithful” is pistis. In terms of their semantic domains, ’emunah and ’emet connote an objective sense of reliability (of persons) and stability (of inanimate objects); pistis conveys more of a subjective sense of placing confidence in a person, trusting in a person, or believing in a person or set of propositions. This subjective sense of pistis is correlated to considering the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence as reliable—“faithful.” Pistis likewise is used to communicate the quality of this person or belief as “committed” and “trustworthy.”

As noted, to some degree the meanings of the Hebrew and Greek terms overlap. However, certain dissimilarities are apparent as well. These observations play out in OT and NT expressions of faith. Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher known for his academic work in the area of “faith,” distinguished between two types of faith: OT/Judaic faith, typified as tribal, national, and communal trust and fidelity based on the covenant; and NT/Christian faith, characterized as individual persuasion or belief in something.

Old Testament

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faithfulness as an attribute of God. Yahweh is presented in the OT as faithful to his promises, as faithfulness is a part of his very being. In the Torah the Israelites are reminded, “The Lord your God is God; he is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). Not only is God presented as keeping his covenant, but also the prophet Hosea calls God “the faithful Holy One” (Hos. 11:12). Isaiah likewise pre-sents faithfulness as an attribute of God (Isa. 49:7). The people can rest assured, for God is unchanging and reliable.

The psalmist speaks of Yahweh as the faithful God: “You have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God” (Ps. 31:5 NRSV); “he remains faithful forever” (Ps. 146:6). The translation “faithful” is warranted in these instances in the psalms. Its connotations are “truth” and “trustworthiness.” Yahweh is ascribed divine honor by his people recognizing and acknowledging his faithfulness and trustworthiness, and by responding to it in obedience as the people of God.

The faith of Abraham. Abraham’s (Abram’s) faith is used in the Bible as an example (Rom. 4:12; Gal. 3:6–9) in the sense that Abraham trusted God’s faithfulness in a way unequaled by other characters in the OT. Abraham lived in Mesopotamia when God spoke to him in a vision and told him that his descendants would be as innumerable as the stars in the sky (Gen. 15:1–5). Abraham trusted that God would be faithful to keep his promise despite insurmountable obstacles. This trust was credited to Abraham as righteousness (15:6). God subsequently initiated a covenant with Abraham (15:7–21).

Abraham’s life was characterized by his obedience to God and by his considering God to be faithful, something well noted by the early church (Heb. 11:8–11, 17–19) and used as an example of faith in the Christian walk (12:1). The three best-known examples of Abraham’s obedience and hence trust in God’s faithfulness are found consecutively in the departure from his homeland, the birth of his son Isaac, and the offering of Isaac as a sacrifice.

When God said to Abraham, “Go from your country, your people and your father’s household to the land I will show you” (Gen. 12:1), Abraham went as commanded (12:4). He obeyed despite his cultural disposition toward staying in the area of his ancestry and kin, and he went without knowledge of an appointed destination. Elderly and childless (12:7, 11–12), Abraham considered offspring to be impossible. However, Abraham trusted that God would be able to raise offspring for him, believing that he would become a great nation (12:2). His offspring Isaac was later reminded of the obedience of Abraham (26:5). Abraham’s greatest challenge of trust in God’s faithful provision came when he was commanded to offer his son Isaac as a burnt offering (22:2). He was commended for fearing God without reservation (22:12).

When the priest and initial leader of the Maccabean revolt, Mattathias, gave his farewell speech to his sons as he faced death in 166 BC, he placed his deeds along the lines of biblical heroes of faith such as Abraham. With likely reference to Abraham offering Isaac, he said, “Was not Abraham found faithful when tested, and it was reckoned to him as righteousness?” (1Macc. 2:52 NRSV). The early church likewise used this test in Abraham’s life as an example of his faithfulness, while at the same time claiming that the source for this faithfulness was found in faith—faith in God’s faithful provision (Heb. 11:17).

Faithfulness to the covenant. Faithfulness embodies the very core of the covenant relationship. God seeks a love relationship with humanity expressed in initiating his covenant. He is described as “abounding in love and faithfulness” (Exod. 34:6). His covenant love (Heb. khesed) is closely correlated to his faithfulness: “He is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love” (Deut. 7:9). Throughout the OT, Yahweh is shown as loyal to his covenant. Yahweh’s righteousness is seen in his faithfulness in keeping the covenant even when his people were disloyal and did not acknowledge his faithfulness. He delivered his people out of Egypt because of his covenant love and righteousness, as the psalmist declared: “But from everlasting to everlasting the Lord’s love is with those who fear him, and his righteousness with their children’s children—with those who keep his covenant and remember to obey his precepts” (Ps. 103:17–18). He delivered them out of their subsequent exile, declaring them righteous because their repentant hearts trusted in his faithfulness and sought to obey his covenant. Yahweh said, “If I have not made my covenant with day and night and established the laws of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his sons to rule over the descendants of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes and have compassion on them” (Jer. 33:25–26).

God’s people, however, were expected to reciprocate and trust his faithfulness (1Chron. 16:15–16). When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai, he instructed Moses to tell the Israelites to obey the commands fully and to keep the covenant. It was only then that they would be a treasured possession, a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The Israelites were expected to follow in obedience and thus reciprocate God’s faithfulness. The people of Israel often failed, but David and other godly people chose to be faithful to God and walk in his truth (Ps. 119:30; Heb. 11:4–38).

Faith counted as righteousness. Whereas faith is used throughout the OT in reference to God’s faithfulness and loyalty, it is used in Hab. 2:4 as pertaining to the faith of the righteous: “But the righteous will live by his faith” (NASB). In Rom. 1:17 Paul specifies, “For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith from first to last, just as it is written: ‘The righteous will live by faith.’ ” He notes that God’s righteousness, even as revealed within OT promises, is by faith (“faith to faith,” or “faith, through and through”). By the parameters “from faith to faith,” Paul intends to exclude works of righteousness, a theme that he carries consistently in the first four chapters of Romans. Justification, for Habakkuk’s hearers, meant faithfulness, a single-minded focus on Yahweh to meet life’s essential needs. For Paul, salvation by way of justification meant that reliance upon Christ alone was foundational. In Pauline theology, faith is a thread connecting the old covenant with the new covenant.

New Testament

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:28–29).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (Eph. 2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1Pet. 1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Faith is rarely addressed in the book of Revelation. Rather, faithfulness is the objective. Christ is described as the faithful and true witness (Rev. 1:5; 3:14), the perfect example for believers. One of the believers in Asia Minor, Antipas, is identified as Christ’s witness and faithful one (2:13). Those believers who, like Antipas, are faithful unto death, are called “overcomers” (2:10, 26). The faithless are thrown into the lake of fire, which represents the second death (21:8).

Faith and salvation. The role of faith in salvation is often hotly debated. Views are polarized between Christ as the object of faith and as the subject of faith. These views are designated as an objective genitive (faith in Christ), also known as an anthropological view, and a subjective genitive (the faithfulness of Christ), also known as a christological view. Thus, for example, Rom. 3:22 can be translated as “This righteousness from God comes through faith in Jesus Christ to all who believe” (cf. NRSV) or as “This righteousness from God comes through the faithfulness of Jesus Christ for all who believe” (cf. NET). In the latter translation the faithfulness of Christ is seen as the agent of salvation.

In Eph. 2:8 the phrase “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith,” points to faith as instrumental in salvation. However, the source of that faith is not made clear. Does God provide the faith required to be saved, and thus the event is out of the hands of humanity? Or does salvation require a response from human beings in the form of faith—that is, trust?

In the Letter to the Romans, Paul indicates a correlation between grace and faith (Rom. 4:16; 5:1–2), and he shows that Abraham’s faith, his belief and unwavering hope in God’s faithfulness, was credited to him as righteousness (4:18–22). In the new covenant this righteousness likewise is credited to those who believe in God (4:23–24).

Faith and works. In Eph. 2:8–10 works are described as an outflow of the faith of believers: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God—not by works, so that no one can boast. For we are God’s handiwork, created in Christ Jesus to do good works, which God prepared in advance for us to do.”

Faith and works are also related in the letter of James, where works appear to be a prerequisite of faith, for faith without works is dead (2:26). While at first sight this might appear to contradict a Pauline understanding of faith and works (Rom. 3:19–5:1; Gal. 2:15–3:24), James and Paul use the word “works” differently. Paul uses it in terms of “obedience to the law,” something obsolete as a requirement in the new covenant. James, however, writes with regard to works of charity, not works of obedience to Jewish ritualistic law. Authentic faith, then, shows the evidence of good works—charity, the fruit of the Spirit.

Faith and the Church

Whereas baptism was a public initiation rite into the first-century Christian community, it was faith in Christ Jesus that was understood as establishing one’s membership in the family of God (Gal. 3:26). This membership was available to both Jews and Gentiles. Faith, the shared belief system in and confession of Jesus’ salvific work, became the common denominator in the Christian community. In Ephesians, faith is identified as one of the unifying elements of the church (Eph. 4:5). The prayer of faith heals the sick person in the church, another unifying element of applying faith (James 5:13–15).

Faith as a spiritual gift. According to the apostle Paul, the gift of faith is closely related to the life and functioning of the church (1Cor. 12:9). Mentioned among other gifts, or charismata (12:4), this aspect of faith is that benefit of salvation with which certain members of the church are graced and is used for the common good (12:7). This faith, then, is understood as edifying the Christian community at large rather than just the individual believer.

Faith and the Christian life. Christians are described as living by faith (2Cor. 5:7). Not only does faith lead people to Christ, but also Christ subsequently dwells in believers’ hearts through faith (Eph. 3:17). This Christian faith is subject to testing (James 1:2).

Faith is presented by Paul as present at different levels of growth among believers. Some Christians are weak in faith (Rom. 14:1), whereas others are strong in faith (15:1). Faith can differ in its strength of conviction (4:20–22; 14:5). It is presented as something that can grow (2Cor. 10:15).

Faith is grouped among gifts and virtues. Lifted out together with hope and love, faith is mentioned among gifts that edify believers in the church (1Cor. 13:13). Likewise, faith is mentioned as a Christian virtue among the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

Also known as kherem warfare or Yahweh war. The term “holywar,” though never used in the Bible, characterizes well thewars that Israel fought at God’s command, particularly thosewithin the Promised Land. God is present with Israel in war, and thusthe battlefield becomes holy ground. God gives Israel instructionsconcerning the waging of war in Deut. 7, 20. From these passages,plus the historical accounts of Israel’s wars, we can describeholy war as follows.

Beforethe Battle

Godtells Israel when to go to war. Israel’s leaders cannot engagein battle without first hearing from God. God reveals himself toJoshua, for instance, before the battle of Jericho to give himinstructions (Josh. 5:13–15). David inquires of God through thepriest Abiathar, who presumably uses oracular devices to discoverGod’s will (1Sam. 23:1–6). Joshua makes a seriouserror in not seeking God’s will in the matter of the Gibeonites(Josh. 9:14).

Oncethe Israelites learn that God wants them to go to battle, they mustspiritually prepare themselves. Since God makes his presence known onthe battlefield, the troops must be in a state of ritual puritycomparable to those who visit the sanctuary. Before the conquest, forinstance, it is necessary for the fighting men to undergocircumcision and to observe the Passover (Josh. 5:2–12).Prebattle sacrifices are also required (1Sam.13).

Duringthe Battle

TheArk of the Covenant plays a central role in holy war, carried bypriests and accompanying the army. The ark is a powerful symbol ofGod’s presence and indicates to the army that God fights forthem. The march into battle takes the form of a religious procession.The priests carrying the ark go first, while singers praise God(2Chron. 20:20–21). The long march in the wilderness hasthe character of such a march into battle, since Moses begins theday’s journey by shouting, “Rise up, Lord! May yourenemies be scattered; may your foes flee before you” (Num.10:35). Then the ark carried by priests leads the way.

SinceGod is present with the army, the number of troops and the quality oftheir weapons are unimportant. Indeed, on occasion when Israel has anample supply of troops, God commands that the war leader reduce theirnumber, as in the famous story of Gideon paring down his troops fromthirty-two thousand to three hundred. The purpose of this reductionis to demonstrate to the people with certainty that they win thebattle only because of God’s strength. The inexperienced David,armed with a slingshot, expresses this sentiment to the mercenarygiant Goliath before he kills him: “You come against me withsword and spear and javelin, but I come against you in the name ofthe Lord Almighty, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you havedefied.... All those gathered here will know thatit is not by sword or spear that the Lord saves; for the battle isthe Lord’s, and he will give all of you into our hands”(1Sam. 17:45, 47). Although the Israelites must engage theenemy, they know for certain that it is God who provides the victory.

Afterthe Battle

SinceGod wins the battle for Israel, the proper response is praise. The OTcontains many songs that celebrate victory in warfare (Exod. 15;Judg. 5; Pss. 24; 98; 149).

Thetreatment of the plunder and prisoners of war depends on whether thebattle takes place in the promised land. If the battle takes placeoutside the land, then, while the men are killed, the women andchildren are spared. If the battle takes place in the land, thenkherem goes into effect. The Hebrew word kherem is difficult totranslate (possibilities include “complete destruction,”“things under the ban,” “things devoted to theLord”), but it is clear that it means that all the plunder goesto God (the sanctuary treasury) and that all the people (men, women,and children), and sometimes all the animals, are killed. The purposeof this is to keep the inhabitants of the land from influencingIsrael to worship other gods. Also, God uses Israel as an instrumentof his judgment against these sinful nations.

Warfareagainst Israel

Whilemost divinely ordained warfare was directed toward Israel’senemies, God also used foreign nations to judge his sinful people.The initial defeat at Ai (Josh. 7), the capture of the ark by thePhilistines at the time of Eli (1Sam. 4), and the destructionof Jerusalem and the temple by the Babylonians (Lam. 2) are examples.

NewTestament Holy War

Theprophets who ministered during the exilic and postexilic periodsannounced that God would appear again in the future. The people ofIsrael were living under the oppressive hand of Babylon and thenPersia, but they were comforted by the idea that God would come andsave them from their enemies (Dan. 7; Zech. 14; Mal.4).

Whenthe NT opens, John the Baptist proclaims that the time of judgmentannounced by these prophets has come (Matt. 3:7–12). After hebaptizes Jesus, he is put in prison and hears reports of Jesus’ministry that disturb him. He wonders why Jesus is not bringingviolent judgment against the enemies of God (Matt. 11:1–15).But Jesus has heightened and intensified the warfare so that it isdirected against the “powers and principalities,” andthis battle is won with spiritual weapons (2Cor. 10:3–6;Eph. 6:10–20). Indeed, the ultimate victory is achieved not bykilling but by dying. Paul describes the crucifixion and ascensionusing warfare language in Eph. 4:7–10; Col. 2:13–15.

John,however, was not wrong. The book of Revelation is the fulleststatement of Christ’s return, which will signal the final war.In this war, all evil, both spiritual and human, will be brought toan end (Rev. 19:11–21).